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KING'S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



BY 
CHARLES A. KING 

DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING 
EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN 



NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



1' v< 



KING'S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 
ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION 
CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY 
INSIDE FINISHING 
HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS 



Copyright, 1911, py 
CHARLES A. KING. 

Enteued at Stationers' Hall, London. 
W. P. I 



v^' 



©CI.A280811 



PREFACE TO THE SERIES 

This series consists of five volumes, four of wliich are intended 
as textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, tech- 
nical, or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the " Hand- 
book in Woodwork and Carpentry," is for the use of teachers and 
of normal students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the 
other four volumes. 

Of the pupils' volumes, the first two, '' Elements of Woodwork " 
and "Elements of Construction," are adapted to the needs of stu- 
dents in manual-training schools, or in any institution in which 
elementary woodwork is taught, whether as x^urely educational 
handwork, or as preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in 
carpentry or vocational training. 

The volumes " Constructive Carpentry " and " Inside Einish- 
ing" are planned with special reference to the students of tech- 
nical, industrial, or trade schools, who have passed through the 
\\ork of the first two volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects 
treated are those which will be of greatest value to both the pro- 
spective and the finished workman. 

For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required 
course, but who are allowed to introduce supplementary' or 
optional models under certain conditions, and for others who 
have more liberty and are able to make such changes as they 
see fit, this series will be found perfectly adaptable, regardless 
of the grades taught. To accomplish this, the material has been 
arranged by tojucs, which may be used by the teacher irrespective 
of the sequence, as each topic has to the greatest extent possible 
been treated independently. 

iii 



iv PREFACE TO THE SERIES 

The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hiibbell, Ph.D., now 
President of the Lincohi Memorial University, for encouragement 
and advice in preparing for and planning the series, and to 
George R. Swain, Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay- 
City, Michigan, for valuable aid in revising the manuscript. 

Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodi- 
cals, and the publications of the United States Departments of 
Education and of Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the 
author has gleaned from their pages. 

CHARLES A. KING. 
Bay City, Michigan. 



PREFACE TO ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

In preparing this book, it has been the author's purpose to 
present, in as complete and concise form as possible, the knowl- 
edge which every wood-worker sliould possess regarding the care 
and use of his tools and the material upon which he employs 
them. 

Whether an amateur, apprentice, or skilled workman, whether 
a carpenter, boat builder, pattern maker, or wood carver, the ele- 
mentary knowledge of the construction of tools, of sharpening 
them, and of their adjustment and manipulation is practically the 
same. The structure of wood, and the necessity of a])plying its 
peculiarities of grain and texture to the advantage of the work in 
hand, also is the same upon all branches of woodwork. 

While innumerable tools and cutting devices have been invented 
to enable the wood-worker to accomplish special results economi- 
cally both as to time and material, a study of them will prove 
that they all operate upon a few simple principles, a knowledge 
of which is not difficult to acquire, though skill and judgment in 
the application of the tools can be attained only by continuous 
and properly directed practice. 

It would be both impossible and unnecessary in a book of this 
sort to describe these various devices, though in a schoolroom it 
is a great advantage to have as many of them as practicable, not 
for tlieir use only, but that the students may become familiar 
with their purposes and the applications of the fundamental prin- 
ciples upon which each is based. 

The actual use of tools may be considered the ABC of wood- 
work, as it bears the same relation to the finished product of the 
workman as the alphabet bears to literature, the space between 



vi PREFACE TO ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

the mere mechanical facility in the use of eitiier tools or alpha- 
bet, being the result of the judgment, skill, and individuality of 
either the workman or the author. 

Thus, if a student acquires the facility to use the tools described 
in this volume, he will have little difficulty in using other and 
more complex tools; and when he has mastered the principles 
of construction involved in the exercises explained in the follow- 
ing book of this series, the "Elements of Construction," and the 
correct use of the tools involved in making these, together with 
their applications and combinations, he has acquired the funda- 
mental knowledge of all construction in wood. 

CHARLES A. KING. 
Bay City, Michigan. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Chai'tkr I. Growth of Wood. — Kinds of trees used for lumber; 
The formation of wood ; Tissues ; Tlie medullary rays ; The grain 
in trees ; Defects found in lumber ; When to cut lumber . . 1 

Chattkr II. Llmherixo and Varieties of Wood. — The manu- 
facture of lumber ; To saw lumber of irregular dimensions ; The 
grading of lumber ; The testing of lumber ; Surveying or estimat- 
ing lumber ; Qualities of wood 12 

Chapter III, Care of Lumber. — The piling of lumber; Permanent 
lumber ways ; To minimize the warping of lumber ; Weather-dried 
lumber ; Kiln-dried lumber ; Moist air kilns ; Induced draft kilns ; 
Kesults of the two systems ; Filling a kiln ; Length of time lum- 
ber should be left in the kiln ; The care of kiln-dried lumber ; 
Steaming wood ; Preserving wood 45 

Chapter IV. Tools. — How to purchase tools; Benches; Rules; 
The try-square ; The steel, or framing, square ; The bevel ; The 
gauge ; The hammer ; The hatchet ; The mallet ; Saws ; The knife 
blade ; Planes ; Sharpening a plane ; The jack plane ; The jointer ; 
The smoothing plane; The block plane; The correct position; 
Chisels ; Gouges ; The drawshave ; The spokeshave ; Bits ; The 
bitbrace, or stock; The screwdriver; Compasses, or dividers ; Pliers; 
The scraper ; Edges ; Nail sets ; Wrenches ; Handscrews ; A grind- 
stone ; Emery, corundum, carborundum; Whetstones; Files; 
Saw filing 57 

Chapter V. Glue and Sandpaper. — Different kinds of glue ; How 

to use glue ; The testing of sandpaper ; How to use sandpaper . 118 

Chapter VI. Wood Finishing. — Filling; Staining wood; Shellac; 

Wax finishing ; Oil finish ; Varnish ; Polishing ; Brushes . . 128 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOiNS 



FIG. 

1. Section of Yellow Pine 

2. Section of Oak Tree Trunk 

3. Defects in Lumber , 

4. Felling a Tree .... 

5. Cutting Small Branches from Felled Spruce 

6. Skid way of Spruce Logs . 

7. Load of White Pine Logs 

8. Hauling Logs by Steel Cable . 

9. Loading Logs from Shedway to Trai 

10. Boom of Logs .... 

11. Log Jam ..... 

12. Sawndll in the Big Tree District 

13. Circular Saw .... 

14. Double Cut Band Saw 

15. Plain, Slash, or Bastard Sawing 

16. Four Methods of Quartering . 

17. Lumber Scale .... 

18. Beech and Sugar Maple Forest 

19. White Pine Forest . 

20. Douglas Spruce Forest 

21. Eed Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by 

22. Permanent Lumber Ways 

23. Warping of Lumber . 

24. Lumber piled in Double Courses 

25. Manual-training Bench . 
2(1 Carpenter's Bench . 

27. Two-foot, Four-fold Rule 

28. Zigzag Rule . 

29. Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edgo 

30. Use of Two Try-squares to see if Piece of Wo^ 

31. Position of Try-square when Making Line 

32. Steel, or Framing, Square 

viii 



3d is 



Out 



of W 



ind 



PAGE 

2 

5 

7 

12 
13 
14 
14 
15 
16 
16 
17 
18 
20 
21 
22 
22 
27 
31 
39 
41 
43 
46 
48 
49 
58 
58 
59 
59 
60 
60 
61 
62 



LIST Ol'^ ILLUSTRATIONS 



IX 



;>]. Bevel and Steel S(iuaie 

34. Marking Gauge 

35. Marking Gauge in Use 

.](». Claw Ilaninier ........ 

37. Toenailing and Tacking 

38. Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail Set .... 

3'.). Hatchet and Ilandaxe 

40. Mallets (Square-faced and Hound) .... 

4L Saws — Rip-, Cutting-off, and Compa.ss, or Keyhole 

42. Backsaw 

43. Use of the Saw 

44. Keset Saw Handle 

45. Knife Blades 

46. Section of an Iron Plane 

47. Result of Using Plane with Improperly Adjusted Cap Iron 

48. Result of Using Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted Properly 

49. Setting a Plane 

oO. Whetting and Grinding of Plane .... 

51. Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter 

52. Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron 

53. Shape of Edge of Tlane Iron . 

54. Jack Plane 

55. Method of Guiding a Jointer . 

50. Knuckle Joint Block Plane 

57. Use of the Block Plane 

58. Using Block Plane upon Small Pieces 
50. Incorrect Use of Jack Plane 
60. Beginning the vStroke with a Jack Plane 
6L Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane 

62. Chisels 

63. Drawshave ..... 
()4. Spokeshave 

65. Auger Bit 

66. Cross-handled Auger 

67. German Bit and Twist Drill 

68. Extension Bit and Center Bit . 

69. Filing an Auger Bit . 

70. Ratchet Bitbrace .... 

71. Compasses ..... 

72. Calipers 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FI«. 

73. 
74. 

75. 

76. 

77. 
78. 
70. 
80. 
8L 
82. 

83. 
84. 

85. 
86. 
87. 



90. 
91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 
95. 
96. 
97. 
'98. 
99. 



Pliers 

Nippers ....... 

Scraper ....... 

Edges of Scrapers 

Angle of Burnisher with Sides of Scraper 

Method of Grasping Scraper for Sharpening 

Top Views of the Angles of the Burnisher 

Angle to be avoided in Sharpening Scraper 

Turning back the Edge of a Scraper 

Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a Broad Sur 

face . 

Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within Small Area 

Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon an Edge 

Monkey Wrench ..... 

Effect of the Unskillful Use of a Handscrew 

Correct Use of Handscrew 

Emery Wheel Dresser 

Jointing a Saw 

Hand Saw Set . 

Anvil Saw Set . 

Angle of the File with the Edge of the Saw 

Angle of the File with the Sides of the Saw . 

Results of Filings as shown in Fig. 93 

Method of Carrying a File to obtain the Hook of a 

Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw 

Use of Sandpaper upon a Broad Surface . 

Sandpapering Panel Work . . • . 

Method of Grasping Sandpaper in Rubbing down Shellac Finish 



Cutting-off Saw 



PAGE 

95 
95 
96 
97 
97 
98 
99 
100 
100 

101 
101 
102 
103 
103 
104 
100 
109 
110 
110 
111 
111 
112 
112 
113 
124 
126 
134 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

CHAPTER I 
Growth of Wood 

1. Kinds of trees used for lumber. — (A.) The classifi- 
cation of trees here considered is based upon the method by 
which the trunk, or stem, of a tree is formed. The term 
exogenous is appHed to outside growers, around which a 
layer of wood grows each year, and from which is cut the 
lumber of commerce. As the wood-worker is interested 
mainly in trees which grow by this method, we will do no 
more than mention the endogenous, or inside-growing, trees 
or plants of the nature of palm trees, cornstalks, etc., in 
which the woody fiber is formed upon the inside of the 
stem. 

(B.) The new wood formed each year upon exogenous 
trees is known as the annual layer, or ring; the separate 
layers being more prominent in open-grained woods, such 
as oak, ash, and chestnut, than in close-grained woods, 
such as maple, cherry, poplar, and birch. It is the dif- 
ference in the character and structure of these layers 
which makes some woods hard and others soft, some 
with open and others with close grain, and which also, 
with the coloring matter peculiar to each kind of wood, 
causes its individuality and adaptability to certain uses. 

king's woodwork — 1 1 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



(The color and odor of wood are caused by chemical com- 
binations, and are not part of the substance of the wood.) 
Each of these annual layers is composed of two parts, 
the formation being shown m Fig. 1, in which the grain of 
yellow pine is depicted. The soft, cellular, or open, grain, 

a, is formed as the sap moves 
upward in the spring, and the 
hard, compact grain, h, is 
formed later in the year. In 
soft woods the open grain 
predominates, while in hard 
woods the compact grain is 
more in evidence. 

The age of a tree may be 
determined by counting these 
annual rings upon the stump, 
though a drouth during the 
growing season may have at 
some time so affected its 
growth as to make some layers 
indistinct, rendering it impos- 
sible to be absolutely sure of the count. In a young tree 
the annual layers are thicker than when the tree becomes 
more mature. 

(C.) The different kinds of timber which the carpenter 
uses are cut from deciduous, or broad-leaf, trees, and from 
coniferous, or needle-leaf, trees. This classification of trees 
is based upon the difference in the forms of their leaves, 
the former kind furnishing the ash, oak, walnut, beech, 
birch, and other woods that are hard to work, as well as 
poplar or white wood, linn or bass wood, and others which 




Fig. i. 



Section of 
Pine. 



Yellow 



soft, cellular grain; h, hard, compact 
grain. 



GROWTH OF WOOD 3 

are called hard woods, not in the sense that they are hard 
to work, but because then- method of growth is the same. 

The coniferous or evergreen trees furnish the cedars, 
pines, hemlocks, spruces, firs, redwood, tamarack, cy- 
})ress, and a few other woods of the same nature. These 
woods have a resin which is always present, no matter 
how old or dry the wood may be, which explains their 
superior weather-resisting qualities. 

2. The formation of wood. — (A.) In the spring the sap 
begins to flow upward, mainly through the open cells of 
the cambium (the new growth in the stem, by which the 
diameter of the tree is increased), and to some extent 
through the sapwood. As it conies in contact with the 
air by means of the leaves and the green shoots of the 
tree, (B.) it gives off water and oxygen, and absorbs 
carbonic acid gas from the air, (C.) which is formed into 
starch, sugar, oil, etc.; this in turn becomes part of the 
sapwood, and forms the compact part of the annual ring, 
completing the layer for that year. 

(D.) The wood is formed by a deposit of matter from the 
sap, which gradually thickens the cell walls until the cells 
are filled, when that layer becomes a part of the heart- 
wood, or that part of the tree which is inclosed within the 
annual laj^ers of sapwood. 

(E.) Both the fibers and the cells of the sapwood are 
filled with water or sap, which may be removed by season- 
ing, but the sapwood of most trees used for building pur- 
poses is not as good lumber as the heartwood, as it is 
always susceptible to moisture. The exceptions to this 
will be mentioned elsewhere. 

(F.) In all unseasoned lumber from 20 to 60 per cent of 



4 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

its weight is moisture, which must be evaporated before 
the lumber has its highest commercial value. This may 
be done by weather drying or by artificial means, the lum- 
ber being treated in a specially constructed kiln. 

3. Tissues. — (A.) A tree trunk is composed of four 
different tissues, viz.: 

1. The pith (Fig. 2, a), a cellular tissue: this is worth- 
less and its presence in lumber is considered a defect. 

2. The wood, which includes the heartwood (6), the 
sap wood (c), and the medullary rays {g). From this part 
of the tree the commercially valuable lumber is taken. 

3. The cambium (d), which is a thin layer between the 
sapwood (c) and the bast (e). 

4. The bark, which includes both the bast (e) and 
the outer bark (/). The bark of most trees is worthles^^, 
but that of chestnut, oak, hemlock, and other trees which 
are rich in tannic acid is used in large quantities by 
tanneries. 

(B.) The heartwood (b), or duramen, of most trees is 
the part generally used by carpenters upon the best work. 
It is firm, compact, and of the color and qualities charac- 
teristic of the wood. 

(C.) The sapwood (c), or alburnum, is generally light- 
colored, and in most building woods its presence is con- 
sidered a defect, though not in. hickory, ash, maple, or 
yellow pine, and a few other woods ; in fact, in these woods 
it is often preferred to the heartwood for many kinds of 
work on account of its color. The alburnum is filled 
with the active elements of the sap, which are deposited 
as the sap passes through the trees, and in time becomes 
part of the duramen, or heartwood. The time required 



GROWTH OF WOOD 




Fig. 2. — Section of Oak Tree Trunk. 

a, pith; b, heartwood, or duramen; c, sapwood, or alburnum; d, cambium; e, bast, or 
inner bark; /, outer bark, or corky layer; g, medullary rays, or silver grain; po, plain oak; 
qo, quartered oak. 



6 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

for sapwood to attain maturity ranges from thirty to one 
hundred years, according to its kind and age. 

(D.) Outside of the sapwood (Fig. 2, c) is the cam- 
bium (d), which furnishes the substance upon which the 
hfe of the tree depends. Here, nourished by the richest 
sap, new cells are formed, which become either sapwood 
or a part of the bast. (E.) At (e) is shown the bast or 
inner bark, which is composed of a woody fiber combined 
with a tissue of cells. This is elastic, which allows it to 
expand as the wood grows beneath it. Outside of the 
bast is the bark (/), or outer covering, which is of a corky 
nature, and protects the delicate vital parts of the tree. 

4. The medullary rays. — Every tree has medullary 
rays (Fig. 2, g), usually spoken of by wood-workers as 
the ^' silver streak," or '^ silver grain." These rays con- 
nect the center of the tree with the outside, and are 
more prominent in such woods as oak, beech, and syca- 
more than in other woods It is to take advantage of 
the beauty which these medullary rays impart that so 
much quarter-sawed lumber is used, though lumber sawed 
in this way is preferred for other reasons, which will be 
discussed later. 

In many woods these rays are so small as to be invisible 
to the naked eye, as in pine, for instance, which has fifteen 
thousand to the square inch. Aside from adding much to 
the beauty of the lumber, they also give strength ; if 
lumber is dried out too rapidly by artificial heat, it is 
apt to check, or crack, upon the line of the medullary 
rays. 

5. The grain in trees. — In open or exposed situations 
trees usually grow more or less gnarled or crooked, which 



GROWTH OF WOOD 7 

tends to improve the grain. The strength of lumber 
cut from trees grown as described is impaired, however, 




l''iG. 3. — Defects in Lumber. 

a, wind shakes or cup shakes: 6, heart shakes; c, star shakes; d, branch broken off, showing 
the method by which the annual layers gradually cover broken branches; e, hard knoi,. 

as the wood is more cross-grained than that from trees 
which grow in the heart of a forest, with practically the 
same conditions on all sides. As forest trees are con- 
tinually reaching up for the sunlight, they grow taller and 



8 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

straighter, which makes it possible for straighter-grained 
lumber to be cut from them, and as the branches are at 
the top, where they receive the sunlight and air, there are 
few cross-grained places. 

When the annual rings are large, the grain is said to be 
coarse, and if the rings are fine, the term fine-grained is 
used to describe it. When the direction of the fibers is 
nearly parallel with the sides and the edges of the board, 
it is said to be straight-grained; when the lumber is taken 
from a crooked tree, it is said to be cross-grained, as the 
grain follows the shape of the log, while the board is sawed 
straight. Cross-grained lumber is the handsomer ; in this 
the fibers, being at different angles with the surface of 
the board, form a variety of figures, which add much to the 
beauty of the wood. 

6. Defects found in lumber. — (A.) Some of the most 
common defects found in lumber are wind shakes, or cup 
shakes (Fig. 3, a), which are cracks following the line of 
the porous part of the annual rings. These are caused 
by the action of severe winds. (B.) Heart shakes (Fig. 
3, h) are cracks radiating from the center of the tree, and 
may be found in any kind of wood, as they are the result 
of deficient nutrition, or loss of vitality. (C.) Star 
shakes (Fig. 3, c) are caused by the shrinkage of the tree 
upon the outside, which is the result of a long dry spell 
of intense cold, or of the deficient action of the sap. Star 
shakes differ from heart shakes in being larger upon the 
outside of the tree; the heart shakes are larger at the 
center. 

Shakes of all kinds are common defects and sometimes 
are so numerous as to make the log worthless. 



GROWTH OF WOOD 9 

(D.) Discolor ations are caused by decay which has at 
some time gained a foothold, but which the tree was 
sufficient!}^ vigorous to overcome ; or they may be due to 
imperfect or insufficient nutrition, which generally re- 
sults in the entire tree being affected instead of small 
places upon the tree. 

(E.) Timber grown in a damp, marshy locality is gener- 
ally of a poorer quality than that grown upon higher 
ground, as more water is taken up by the roots than 
can be well assimilated, which prevents the formation 
of healthy compact wood. Some w^oods are adapted to 
such soil, the poplar or whitewood, willow, basswood, 
buckeye, and cypress being denizens of moist or swampy 
places. 

Trees growing where they are exposed f to winds from 
one direction are apt to assume a spiral growth, which 
renders the timber almost worthless, as it is weak, and 
twists badly in drying. 

(F.) Trees which have lumps appearing like growths 
upon them are usually unhealthy. These lumps, or 
tumors, may be caused by defective nutrition, checks, or 
shakes, or by the depredations of animals or insects. 

(G.) Clefts, or splits, in a tree may be caused by extreme 
cold, heat, or drouth. They may extend into the tree 
several inches, and while the blemish will always remain, 
showing a discoloration or other defect, nature often 
repairs it so that the strength of the timber is but slightly 
affected. If these clefts are not healed, rain may find 
lodgment there, and the sap be so affected that the ad- 
jacent wood will be destroyed, and this in time will destroy 
the tree. 



10 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

(H.) Eggs of certain insects are also deposited in these 
clefts, the larvae of which bore into the wood and destroy 
it. (I.) If it were not for the birds and other natural 
enemies of these insects, they would increase so rapidly 
that the lumber supply would be seriously affected, and, 
as it is, there are very few trees which are not injured to 
some extent by wood borers. The United States Bureau 
of Entomology estimates that the damage to trees by 
these pests amounts to at least $100,000,000 annually. 

(K.) Sometimes (as at d, Fig. 3) branches die or are 
broken off ; this gives the elements access to the heart of 
the tree and usually causes a permanent injury, as the 
birds and other denizens of the forest frequently dig out 
the rotten wood as soon as the weather has had time to 
do its work, thus giving further opportunity for decay to 
continue its destructive action. If this does not happen, 
the wood will grow over the break after several years and 
leave a loose knot in the heart of the tree, which will be 
a decided blemish when the log is made into lumber. The 
sketch shows the endeavor of nature to repair the defect, 
as the annual rings will eventually close over the break. 

The hard knot at e, Fig. 3, is not a serious defect, unless 
the wood is to be used for finish or where great strength 
is required. 

7. When to cut lumber. — Trees which are intended 
for the use of wood-workers should not be felled while the 
sap is in motion. If cut at any other time than mid- 
summer or in winter, the active sap is apt to sour and to 
cause decay. Owing to the scarcity of lumber, or from 
avarice, this precaution often is ignored, and trees are 
felled at any time of year, regardless of their age ; in such 



GROWTn OF WOOD 11 

cases, much of the lumber lacks the essential quaHties of 
its kind. 

When a tree shows signs of dying at the top, it should be 
cut down, as the quality of the lumber it contains will 
deteriorate rapidly. 

Suggestive Exercises 

1. What is meant by exogenous trees? In what kinds of wood are 
the annual layers most prominent ? Describe the formation of annual 
layers. What causes the difference in the degrees of hardness of 
wood? In the color and odor of wood? How may the age of a tree 
be determined ? Are the broadest annual layers found in young or in 
old trees ? From what class of trees does soft wood come ? Hard wood ? 

2. Describe the motion of sap. What forms the sapwood? With 
what are the cells of the sapwood filled ? Compare sapwood and heart - 
wood. 

3. Describe the four different tissues in a tree. Describe the inner 
bark. 

4. What are the medullar}^ ra^'s? In what woods are they most 
prominent? How do they affect the strength of timber? 

5. What is the nature of trees which grow in exposed situations? 
Where are the straightcst trees found? Why does the location of a 
tree affect the grain ? What is meant by coarse, fine, straight, and cross- 
grained lumber ? 

6. Wliat causes wind shakes ? Heart shakes ? Star shakes ? How 
may they be distinguished from each other? What causes discolora- 
tions ? What is the usual character of timber grown upon marsln^ 
ground ? W^hat woods are adapted to low ground ? What sometimes 
causes spiral growth? What do lumps and excrescences upon a tree 
generally signify ? What causes clefts in trees ? What are the results 
of clefts ? Does nature perfectly repair the cleft ? What is the usual 
result of a branch being broken off? 

7. What is the per cent of moisture in green wood? Should very 
young trees be cut ? Why ? How may the top of a tree show when it 
should be felled ? At what time of year should trees be cut ? 



CHAPTER II 



Lumbering and Varieties of Wood 

8. The manufacture of lumber. — (A.) There are two 
distinct processes in the preparation of lumber for com- 
mercial purposes, logging and sawing ; the former includes 

all the steps from 
felling the tree to the 
delivery of the logs 
at the sawmill; there 
the logs are sawed 
into boards, planks, 
and timbers of cer- 
tain dimensions, 
which are piled and 
exposed to the sun 
and air for a suffi- 
cient time to allow a 
large part of the 
water in them to 
evaporate, when the 
lumber is said to be 
''weather dried," 
and ready for ship- 
ment to the con- 
sumer. 





11 








1 


,.-;':*«^^P|g|i:^ 


W5 



Fig. 4. — Felling a Tree. 



12 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 



13 



(B.) If a lumber 
concern de.sii'es to 
begin operations in 
one of the great for- 
est areas, a '' land- 
looker " or '' timber- 
cruiser" is sent to 
spy out the land, 
and to report upon 
the probable yield of 
timber within certain 
areas, and the con- 
ditions which would 
aid or retard the 
work of getting out 
the logs. If the re- 
port is favorable, the 
standing timber may 
be purchased by 

" stumpage," which means that a certain price will be 
paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut, or the land 
may be purchased outright, though in the early history of 
lumbering cases have been known where these little for- 
malities were omitted. 

Camps are located at convenient points throughout the 
boundary, roads are made through the woods, and founda- 
tions, or ''skidways," built at right angles to them, to 
receive the logs as they are hauled down the/'travoy" 
roads, which are narrow trails cut through the woods at 
frequent distances for this purpose. 

(C.) The above preparations completed, the work of 




Fig. 



5. — Cutting Small Branches from 
Felled Spruce. 



14 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




i'lG. (). SkIDWAY <)1' .Sl'KUCE LoGS 




Fig. 7. — Load of White Pine Logs, 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 



15 



felling the trees is begun (Fig. 4) ; this part of the work 
requires nice skill and judgment, as it is necessary that 
the tree should fall so that it will cause the least damage 
to itself and to surrounding trees. After the tree is down, 
the branches are cut 
close to the trunk (Fig. 
5) and carried to one 
side so that they will 
not be in the way 
of the horses. The 
trunk is then sawed 
into logs, twelve, four- 
teen, sixteen, or eight- 
een feet in length, 
as the imperfections 
and the length of the 
tree trunk may allow. 
Longer or shorter logs 
are rarely cut except 
for special purposes. 

(D.) One end of the 
log is placed upon r. 
drag, or is gripped by 
a pair of tongs, and 
hauled to the nearest 

travoy road and skidway, where it is piled (Fig. 6). 
(E.) From the skidway the logs are loaded upon trucks, 
cars, or sledges (Fig. 7), and carried to the cable (Fig. 8), 
which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of 
the country, or to the railroad (Fig. 9), or floated down a 
river (Fig. 10). If either of these latter methods of 




Fig. 8. — Hauling Logs by Steel Cable. 



16 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fii. '.). — LoADiN i Logs from Shedway to Train. 




Fig. 10. — Boom of Logs. 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 



17 



transportation is employed, the logs are generally piled 
upon another skidway until there is enough for a train 
load, or until the conditions upon the river are favorable 
for them to be floated to the mill. 

(F.) Figure 11 illustrates a jam_ of logs, which is gener- 
ally the most dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to 




face. A jam usually depends upon one key log, which, 
if loosened, will allow the jam to break instantly. The 
work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one 
or two men, who must be men of spring steel nerves and 
muscles, and possessed of the highest possible skill and 
activity, or they cannot hope to break a large jam 
and escape with their lives. 



KING S WOODWORK 



18 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



(G.) The mill illustrated by Fig. 12 is one which re- 
ceives its logs by both rail and river. In this case the 
logs which come in by rail are rolled into the river, as 
they can be more easily placed upon the chain feed of 
the mill. In winter, a small pond of water is heated, in 
which the logs are soaked before they are taken into the 




Fig. 12. — Sawmill in the Big Tree District. 



mill ; this draws the frost out of them, and allows them 
to be worked much more easily: 

(H.) There are different types of sawmills, in which 
the logs are worked into commercial shapes. The small 
enterprises use portable mills, which are moved into the 
woods and located upon a tract of land, remaining until 
all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been sawed, and 
then moved to another locality and the process repeated. 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 19 

Large operations are conducted upon a different plan ; 
mills of a permanent type are erected as near the forest 
as practicable, roads are built, tracks laid, and the logs 
brought from the woods by one of the methods previously 
illustrated ; or, where it is feasible, flumes are built, 
and the logs floated in these to the mill. In erecting a 
mill of this sort, a location is selected upon a waterway if 
l^ossible, as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by 
any other method of transportation, though some of the 
heavier woods will not float, and have to be handled on 
land. (I.) The immersion of logs in water also improves 
the quality of the lumber, as the action of the water upon 
the sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay, 
and also facilitates the seasoning of the manufactured 
product. If the log is left in the water until it becomes 
water-logged, it will sink, and while it is not injured for 
many purposes, the wood loses some of the strength which 
it is supposed to have. In many localities, the salvage 
of sunken logs has become an industry. 

(J.) In modern large lumbering operations, the timber to 
be cut is selected by trained foresters, thus insuring a per- 
manent supply, and in the near future all extensive lum- 
bering operations will, beyond doubt, be conducted upon 
a scientific basis, as it is apparent that unless lumbering 
is carried on differently than it has been in the past, the 
supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the 
demand. 

(K.) In the smaller sawmills, the logs are usually sawed 
into lumber of various dimensions by a circular saw 
(Fig. 13) ; but in the larger mills, the band saw generally 
is used. Figure 14 illustrates a double cut band sawmill, 



20 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut each time 
the log is carried either way. 

9. To saw lumber of irregular dimensions. — (A.) Be- 
sides sawing dimension timber, joists, scantlings, boards, 

and planks of differ- 
ent thicknesses are 
sawed, as follows : 

21'', 3^ 3|'',4''; and 
thicker, if desired. 

(B.) If lumber is 
cut again from its 
original dimensions, 
it is said to be re- 
sawed. When boards 
or planks of the 
above dimensions are 
dressed on both sides, 
they will be about 
I!' thinner ; thus, a 
board sawed V thick 
will, when seasoned 
and dressed, be but J'', and a 2'' plank will be but 1 J" 
or If, though still classed by their sawed dimensions. 

Thicker lumber than that -above-mentioned usually 
comes under the head of dimension timber, which is not 
used to the extent that it was formerly, as steel and con- 
crete are replacing it upon heavy work. 

If V^ boards are wanted, I4'' or " five quarter '' lumber 
is usually resawed to furnish it, and after resawing, is 
planed upon each side to the desired thickness. Boards 




Fig. 13. — Circular Saw. 



LUMBERING AXD VARIETIES OF WOOD 



21 




22 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



for box stock and other special purposes are sometimes 
sawed as thin as Y^ 

(C.) The method of cutting a log illustrated by Fig. 
15 is known as plain, slash, or bastard sawing, and is 
the cheapest way to cut logs, both as to time and waste. 
The log is first squared to secure a bed upon which it may 

lie while being sawed, 



which also makes it un- 
necessary to run each 
board by the edging 
saw to straighten the 
edges. The slabs at a 
are sawed into boards 
as the log is squared, 
and the bark, or '^ live 
These make an inferior 
nearly all sap, but they 




a 

Fig. 15. — Plain, 
Slash, or Bas- 
tard Sawing. 



i^ 


ft 


M 


9 



Fig. 16. — Four 
Methods of 
Quartering. 



edges," sawed off afterward, 
grade of boards, as they are 
are well worth saving, if large logs are being cut. 

In sawing dimension timber, or '' bill stuff," good judg- 
ment is necessary to cut a log so that the greatest amount 
of marketable lumber can be made from it. This is done 
by cutting various sizes from a log, if it will not cut all of 
one size without too much waste. 

(D.) In cutting woods which have prominent medul- 
lary rays or silver grain, the log is sawed by one of the 
methods shown in Fig. 16, the object being to bring the 
rays as nearly parallel to the surface of the board as 
possible, thus giving the broad silver, or quarter, grain 
which is so highly prized. 

The best results are obtained from sections a, h ; this 
method also gives the most waste. In plain sawed 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 23 

lumber, the boards from the middle of the log will 
have the quarter grain ; these are usually culled and 
sold as quarter-sawed. 

Neither of these methods results in economy of time 
or material, as about 25 per cent of each is used in 
excess of that required in plain sawing ; hence, quarter- 
sawed lumber is more expensive than the plain, or bastard, 
sawed. 

(E.) Quarter-sawed lumber (Fig. 16) is preferred not 
only on account of its handsomer grain, but because it 
holds its shape better than lumber sawed in any other 
way, as the annual layers are approximately square 
with the surface of the board. As the board shrinks 
in the direction parallel wdth the annual layers, and 
very little from the center to the outside of the tree, 
it is obvious that there is much less shrinking and 
warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which 
is sawed plain. 

The best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed, and stand 
usage without the surface splintering much better than 
does the common plain sawed material. Quarter-sawed 
lumber is known also as ^' rift-sawed," '^ vertical grain," 
and ^^ comb grained." 

10. The grading of lumber. — Custom varies some- 
what in different localities as to the grading of lumber, but 
there are generally four grades, which are often subgraded 
into qualities suitable for various uses. 

'' Number 1 " lumber should be practically perfect, 
though in large dimensions, small and unimportant blem- 
ishes may be allowed. These blemishes in a board are 
usually restricted to not more than one inch of sap, a small 



24 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

sound knot, or small discoloration, and but one blemish 
to a board is allowed. 

'^ Number 2 " lumber is generally allowed two sound 
knots, an inch of sap, and one other blemish. 

^' Common boards " are allowed three or four sound 
knots, but two thirds of one side must be clear stock. 

/^ Culls," the lowest grade, are used only upon the 
cheapest work. One half of the board must be usable. 

In many cases the boards are graded by the width of 
clear stock which can be taken out. There are tables 
published by the different associations of lumber manu- 
facturers which give the gradings under which their lum- 
ber has been measured and shipped, but as these vary 
from time to time no permanent list can be given. 

The principal reason why there can be no permanent 
grading of lumber is that the forests from which the finest 
timber can be cut in marketable quantities are being 
destroyed. faster than they can be replaced by nature. In 
anticipation of this condition, the Division of Forestry of 
the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in 
organizing government forest preserves, in educating the 
people, and in promoting legislation aimed at the husband- 
ing of our forests. When we consider the abundance of high 
grade lumber a few years ago, and the fabulous prices 
which the same grades now bring, it is evident that this 
movement should have begun during the days of our 
grandfathers, instead of waiting until nearly all the best 
lumber in the great forests east of the Mississippi had 
been cut, and inestimable damage wrought by forest fires. 

II. The testing of lumber. — (A.) Dry, sound stock, 
if struck with the knuckles or with a hammer, will give a 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 25 

clear ringing response, while a wet or decaying piece will 
give a dull response to the blow. 

(B.) Every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor, by 
which, as well as by the grain, the student should learn 
to distinguish the woods in common use. This may be 
more easily done before the wood has been thoroughly 
seasoned. Wood in general has a sweet and pleasing 
odor ; if a sour or musty smell is perceptible, it indicates 
that decay is present. 

(C.) If there is much variation in the color of timber, 
or black and blue spots, the stick is probably diseased. 

(D.) Decay is a disease, which may be prevented by 
dryness or ventilation, and frequently may be cured by 
soaking the wood in water for several days, or by steam- 
ing. The disease of decay is cured also by chemical pre- 
servatives being forced into lumber by pressure ; this at 
the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree. 

Alternate wetting and drying will produce rot, but most 
lumber, if permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry, 
wdll last almost indefinitely. Dry rot spreads to adjoining 
timbers, and even to those which have no connection 
with the one originally infected. 

12. Surveying or estimating lumber. — (A.) It is the 
custom to consider any board less than one inch in thick- 
ness as an inch board, and anything over one inch is 
measured as so many inches and fractions of an inch. 
For instance, a board f thick is surveyed as a full inch, 
while one which is sawed 1^" in thickness is estimated by 
obtaining its surface measure, and increasing it by one half. 
Thus, a plank 12' long, 8'' wide, and 1|'' thick would have 
twelve feet board measure in it. 



26 * ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

In some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which 
varies with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed 
lumber, but this is not universal. 

(B.) In surveying joists or scantling, it is customary 
to obtain the fraction of a foot, board measure, for each 
lineal foot. Thus, a piece of 2 x 4 (inches understood) 
has two thirds of a foot for each foot in length ; a 2 x 6 has 
one foot, and a piece of 2 x 8 has one and one third feet of 
lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured. If a 
joist is 2 X 12, doubling its length gives the number of 
square feet, board measure, that the joist contains. 

(C.) In measuring a common board, the widest parallel 
piece which can be cut from it is the width of the board 
being measured ; therefore the board should be surveyed 
at the narrowest place. In measuring more expensive 
lumber, it is customary to average the width of the board. 

(D.) In estimating all kinds of lumber in common 
use, the lumber scale shown in Fig. 17 is used. It is 
made of thin, cleft hickory, about three feet long, with 
one end large enough for a suitable handle ; on the other 
end is a metal head, which is held against the edge of the 
board while the scale is being read. 

The length of the board is marked near the handle, and 
at the end of the socket of the metal head, as at a. 

In using this scale, the hooked end, or head, is held 
against the edge of the board, as at b ; the eye follows 
along the same line of figures upon which the length of the 
board is found, reading those figures nearest the width of 
the board. Thus, a scale laid upon a board 16' long 
would, without further measuring or calculating, show that 
the board contains 17' board measure. If the board were 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 



27 



12' long, it would contain 13'; and if 14' long, by reading 
the middle line of figures, the board would be seen to con- 
tain 15'. 

In using this scale, it is customary to read to the nearest 
figure, and when there is no difference, to alternate be- 
tween the lower and the higher figures upon different 
boards. Thus, a board 12' long and 8f" or 9]" wide 
would be read as having 9' board measure in it. Two 




Fig. 17. — Lumber Scale. 



boards 82" wide, of the same length as the above, would 
be measured as having 8' and 9', respectively, in their 
surfaces. In short, the fractions of a foot are not consid- 
ered in surveying the lumber in common use. 

13. Qualities of wood. — (A.) Certain kinds of wood 
are adapted for some purposes better than are others ; 
the wood-worker, therefore, should be familiar with the 
qualities which conditions demand, and the kinds of woods 
which have these qualities. 

Lumber for framing should be strong and durable ; it 
should be cut from trees which grow to a size that will 
allow large dimensions to be cut from them. 

For outside finish, the material should be wood which 



28 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

will stand the weather, can be easily worked, and will 
hold its shape well. 

Timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality 
of durability, and should be of sufficient strength to resist 
the strain which will be put upon them. 

Flooring should wear well, hold its shape, and be of 
good appearance. In providing lumber for inside finish, 
care should be used that it has good grain and color, is 
not too soft, and that it will hold its shape well. Al- 
most any wood may be used as far as strength is con- 
cerned, but lumber which shrinks and warps badly is 
unfit for finishing. 

Shingles should be of wood which will resist decay, and 
which has the least tendency to warp and split. 

Boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint 
well, and be as free as possible from the tendency to warp, 
split, and twist when exposed to the weather. 

(B.) All material used in framing a building should be 
weather-dried in good drying weather for at least thirty 
days for each inch in thickness, and that used for inside and 
outside finish and floors should be thoroughly kiln-dried, 
and kept in a dry place until ready for use. These condi- 
tions are not always obtainable, but if the best results 
are desired, they should be followed as closely as possible. 

The woods hereafter described comprise the principal 
varieties used by the wood-workers of the United States. 

(C.) Ash (deciduous, or broad-leaved) is an open- 
grained, light-colored wood, in which the porous portions 
of the annual rings are quite prominent, thus making it 
somewhat coarse-grained. 

It grows in the Northern states, and is a wood of medium 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 29 

weight and hardness. It is tough and elastic, the young 
growth being much used in the manufacture of wagons, 
machinery frames, and for similar purposes, as it is not 
expensive, quite easily worked, and very strong. It 
has a tendency to decay, and is often badly infested with 
insects; therefore it is not suitable for building construc- 
tion or for contact with soil. 

Ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees, 
and is plentiful in many localities. There are two kinds 
of this wood recognized in commerce: the white, which is 
light-colored, and the black, which is of a brownish tinge, 
though there is little difference in the grain of the two. 
Sap is not considered a defect, but is regarded as the best 
part of the tree for some purposes. The wood grown in 
the Northern states is generally tougher than that grown 
farther south. 

The wood from the older and larger trees is not so 
tough and hard as that from the younger growth, and is 
much used for cabinet work and for interior finish. It 
should be filled with a paste-filler, after which it may be 
brought to a fine polish. The wood holds its shape well 
and is useful for the purposes mentioned. 

(D.) Apple (dec.) is not used for construction, as the 
proper dimensions cannot be secured, and as it is very 
stubborn to work. It is one of the best woods known to re- 
sist splitting, and is much used for chisel and saw handles. 

(E.) Basswood, or linden (dec), is a soft, porous wood, 
which shrinks considerably in drying. It is used for the 
backing of veneer work, for drawer bottoms of the com- 
mon grades of furniture, for case backs, and similar pur- 
poses, and is also much used in the manufacture of spools 



30 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

and other small articles which are made in large quanti- 
ties. In building construction, basswood is used for ceil- 
ings, and for other work where strength is not needed, 
though for use in such places it should be thoroughly 
seasoned, or the joints will open. 

If steamed, basswood may be bent to almost any form. 
Steaming also cures to a great extent the tendency of 
this wood to shrink and swell. 

(F.) Beech (dec.) is adapted for use in places where the 
ability to resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary, 
as in plane stocks, tool handles, and parts of machinery. 
In building work, it is used to some extent for flooring and 
for inside finishing. It is used also for furniture, though 
the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive than 
other equally desirable woods. 

If exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness, it 
decays rapidly ; if submerged, it gives fair satisfaction. 

Beech trees are common through the Ohio and Missis- 
sippi valleys, and are found to some extent in all of the 
states between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard. 

(G.) Birch (dec.) is one of our most useful hard woods. 
It is found in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of 
the Eastern states and Canada. There are two varieties 
recognized in commerce, the red and the white birch. 
The former is used considerably for inside finish and for 
furniture. It takes a stain well, and may be made to 
imitate cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any 
one but an expert. When finished in its own natural color, 
it is a satisfactory wood for the above uses, but as it ages, 
it turns to a muddy brown ; as it is a stubborn wood to 
work, it is not popular. 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 31 




Fig. 18. — Beech and Sugar Maple Forest. 



32 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

Canoe, or paper, birch is softer than the red variety, 
and is used to some extent by paper pulp makers, and 
for the manufacture of spools, dowels, and a large variety 
of small articles. 

(H.) Butternut or white walnut (dec.) has a good grain 
and color ; it is quite soft, though not so easily worked as 
are some harder woods, for it has a tendency to string while 
being dressed to a fine surface. It does not absorb mois- 
ture readily, and holds its shape under trying conditions. 

Butternut does not split easily, takes a fine polish, and 
is used considerably for furniture and for interior finish. 

(I.) Cedar (coniferous, or needle-leaved) is of two 
varieties, the red and the white. The former is used con- 
siderably for cooperage and veneers, lead pencils, and for 
lining moth-proof drawers and chests, as its strong odor and 
bitter taste protects it from the ravages of insects. The 
supply of red cedar is becoming limited, and it is now too 
expensive for common use, though our forefathers used it 
for shingles. The unwise and avaricious cutting of this 
valuable timber and of others, notably white and Georgia 
pine, has destroyed what would have been a supply for 
all time, if the cutting had been properly controlled. 

White cedar is much more plentiful, and a much inferior 
wood ; it is used for shingles, water tanks, boat building, 
and in the manufacture of barrels and cigar boxes. It is 
a very durable wood, and shrinks but little in drying. It 
is well adapted for burying, though not strong enough to 
resist a very heavy strain. It grows faster than the red 
cedar, and makes a larger tree. 

(J.) Cherry (dec.) is one of the best of our native woods. 
It is much used for fine finish and for cabinet work, as it 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 33 

holds its shape well, if thoroughly seasoned, and takes a 
fine finish. Its grain is of fine, even texture, of reddish 
color, and often stained to imitate mahogany. When 
well ebonized, it cannot be distinguished from the genuine 
wood except by weight. 

Cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns 
which are to stand rough usage. The tree is found in all 
of the states east of Texas, and in the Mississippi valley, 
but it is becoming too scarce for common use. 

(K.) Chestnut (dec.) is a soft, open-grained wood, 
adapted to use in exposed situations. It is used a great 
deal for inside finish, as it will take a fine polish, and as 
the figures formed by the grain make it a very handsome 
wood for the purpose. 

Not being a strong wood, it will not stand a heavy 
strain, and will shrink and crack badly in drying. 

(L.) Cypress (con.) is similar to cedar. It is one of our 
most durably woods, and perhaps the best we have for 
outside work. It is used extensively for shingles ; roofs 
covered with cypress shingles have been known to last for 
more than seventy-five years. The wood is light, straight- 
grained, and soft ; it is easily worked, and holds its shape 
well. It is to great extent taking the place of white pine 
in the manufacture of doors, sash, and blinds, and is con- 
sidered by many to be equal, if not superior, to that wood. 
It is much used in building small boats, and for use in 
places where it will be exposed to dampness. Eaves, 
troughs, and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than 
those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar, 
which are the only woods having anti-decaying qualities 
equal to cypress. 

king's woodwork — 3 



34 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

Cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimen- 
sions, and if it were stronger and harder, it would be one 
of our best woods for framing and finishing. It is used for 
the latter purpose to a considerable extent, as it has a 
handsome grain, and will take a polish well ; if thoroughly 
seasoned, it will hold its shape as well as any wood. If 
it is seasoned slowly, it does not crack to an appreciable 
extent, but if forced, it is apt to be filled with fine shakes. 
Sap is not considered a blemish. 

Cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the 
Southern states, the best of it coming from those border- 
ing on the gulf. 

(M.) Elm (dec.) is a moderately hard wood, difficult to 
split. It warps and checks to some extent in drying, but 
when well seasoned it holds its shape as well as most woods 
in common use. It is susceptible to a good polish, and is 
used a great deal for interior finish and furniture, as it 
takes a stain well. Much of the quartered oak used in 
the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm 
stump. It is used largely in cooperage, and stands con- 
tact with the soil satisfactorily. 

The elm is found in nearly all parts of the United States, 
but is more abundant east of the Mississippi river. 

(N.) Gum (dec), or, as it is more generally known, 
sweet gum, is extensively used for interior finish upon the 
better class of buildings. It warps and shrinks badly un- 
less thoroughly seasoned, in which condition it is a very 
satisfactory wood. It is tough and strong, cross-grained, 
and of fine texture ; its color is a warm, reddish brown, 
and it finishes handsomely. The gum tree grows abun- 
dantly in the Southern states. 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 35 

(O.) Hemlock (con.) is found in most of the Northern 
states, and is used for scantlings, rough boards, under 
floors, and for boarding preparatory to siding. It is a 
fairly durable wood, but splits easily, and is apt to be full 
of wind shakes. It holds nails firmly. 

(P.) Hickory (dec.) is the hardest native wood in com- 
mon use, and the toughest wood that we have ; it is too 
hard to be used for building material. It is flexible, and its 
principal use is for wagon and carriage work, and for other 
purposes where bent wood and great strength is required. 
As it does not split easily, it is much used in the manufac- 
ture of tool handles. It is liable to attacks from boring in- 
sects, and these pests often destroy much valuable timber. 

Sap is not considered a defect, and the sapwood is in 
fact the most desirable part of the tree, on account of its 
creamy whiteness and great strength. 

(Q.) Locust (dec.) is found in nearly all parts of the 
country, and is a useful and durable wood. It is much 
used for fence posts and, in damp locations, for railway 
ties, and sometimes for furniture, as it has a yellowish 
brown color which takes a polish well. 

(R.) Maple (dec.) is a heavy, strong wood, nearly white, 
with a yellow or brownish tinge. There are several kinds 
of maple, but the kind generally used for commercial 
purposes is the sugar or rock maple. It does not shrink 
excessively, seasons without serious checking, and from it 
a very fine surface for polishing may be obtained. It is 
much used in places where it is exposed to wear, as in 
floors, butchers' tables, etc., and to a considerable extent 
as a cabinet wood, and for interior finish. Maple does 
not resist decay as well as do some other woods. 



36 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

Sap is not considered a defect, and on account of its 
whiteness the sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood 
for many uses. 

Bird's-eye maple is of this wood, but some pecuUarity 
in the growth of certain trees, beUeved by many to be caused, 
by woodpeckers, has caused the tree to have what seen} 
to be numerous small knots, known as curls or eyes. The 
presence of these imparts a beauty which is possessed by no 
other wood, and has never been successfully imitated. 

(S.) Mahogany (dec.) is an imported wood, and is 
much used in the finish of fine buildings and in the manu- 
facture of fine furniture. It is of a rich red color, and has 
a beautiful grain and other desirable qualities which make 
it the finest wood for finish in use. It holds its shape 
remarkably well, unless it is very cross-grained, and is in 
every respect an ideal cabinet wood. Its cost is all that 
prevents it from being universally used. 

(T.) Oak (dec.) is our best all-round native wood. It 
is found abundantly in nearly all parts of the country, 
and forms the larger part of our broad-leaved forests. 
There are a number of species of oak, but they are in general 
known to commerce as the red and the white oak. Nearly 
all these trees are cut for commercial purposes, but the 
white oak is the finest. The wood of some varieties of 
oak is so similar to the white oak that the difference can- 
not be distinguished after the work is finished, therefore 
they are all put together and sold as a medium grade of 
white oak for purposes where the strength of the genuine 
is not required. This will generally account for the dif- 
ference in the grain and the color which is noticed in 
handling the commercial white oak. 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 37 

Red oak is a coarser wood, and is more apt to give trouble 
in seasoning than white oak, though they both have to be 
dried very carefully, or there may be checks and cracks 
to such an extent that the wood will be ruined. Both 
the red and the white oak are used extensively in finish- 
ing and cabinet work, but the red oak is used commonly 
upon the cheaper grades, as it is easier to work. 

The two varieties should never be used upon the same 
job, unless the wood is to be stained a dark color, as 
there is a marked difference in their appearance when 
finished. White oak is much used for flooring, quartered 
oak resulting in a beautiful floor, if the work is well done. 

Oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying cli- 
matic conditions, though if buried deeply, or in water, 
where there is no alteration in moisture or dryness, it 
gives satisfaction. White oak is used to great extent for 
railroad ties, but what these are to be made of in the future 
is causing much speculation, as the end of the present 
supply of white oak is already in sight. 

(U.) Pine (con.) in its different varieties is used more 
than any other kind of wood. It is found in nearly all 
parts of the United States and in Canada. Certain sec- 
tions of the country which were once covered with virgin 
pine forests have, however, been so denuded of their 
wealth, and so many of their young trees destroyed, 
within a few short years, by the depredations of lumber- 
men who cared more for their immediate profit than for 
the prospective good of the nation, that instead of a per- 
manent and continual supply of this valuable wood, there 
are now nothing but barren hillsides, and the moss-grown 
ruins of the lumber camps and sawmills by means of 



38 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

which this irremediable wrong was perpetrated against 
posterity. 

White pine is soft, easily worked, and when thoroughly 
seasoned will hold its shape better than any other wood 
except mahogany. For these reasons, and on account of 
its adaptability to gluing, it is used almost exclusively by 
pattern makers. It is found in the Northern states and 
in Canada. Farther south is the belt in which grows 
the grade of pine known as '' Carolina," the bastard or 
yellotv pine. This belt extends from the Mississippi 
valley to the Atlantic coast, and is of a width to include 
Virginia and the Carolinas. This pine is harder to work, 
and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine, 
but it makes a handsome wood for interior trim, as it is 
capable of a fine finish. Carolina pine is neither so hard 
nor so strong as ''Georgia" pine, which is also known 
commercially as long-leaved pine, pitch pine, or hard pine. 
This wood is found from Virginia to Texas, in the states 
bordering upon the ocean and the gulf. 

Pitch pine has a finer, closer grain than has either of the 
two above described, being much stronger and more dense. 
This is the wood which is used for heavy timbers of large 
buildings, and the above described grades should never 
be confused with it, the Carolina pine resulting in work of 
less strength, for instance, if used where the pitch pine 
was intended. Although this wood is very hard and 
strong, and is the best wood for heavy construction, as 
has been stated, it should never be used in any place which 
is not dry and well ventilated, as it will decay rapidly if 
placed in a damp location, or where it will come in contact 
with the earth. 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 39 




Fig. 19. — White Pine Forest. 



40 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

There are several varieties of pine besides those above 
mentioned. These are generally less desirable for finish 
or for construction than is the white, yellow, or Carolina 
pine, but they are used extensively for the common work 
of light building, and by box factories. 

(V.) Poplar or whitewood (dec.) is cut from the tulip 
tree, and is found principally in the Middle West and in 
some parts of the South. It is of light weight and color, 
with few knots, and is soft and easily worked. It is used 
for the common grades of cabinet work, inside finishing, 
veranda posts, etc. It takes a stain remarkably well, and 
its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers. 
It warps and shrinks considerably in seasoning, and 
unless held in its place, it is apt to twist. 

(W.) Redwood (con.) is taken from the big trees on the 
Pacific slope ; it is straight-grained, soft, and free from 
knots, and may be obtained in boards of any size which 
it is possible to cut. It has the reputation of being one of 
the best woods for use in trying conditions, or where it 
will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture. 

It has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well, but 
it is not apt to become very popular for inside finish, as it is 
easily marred, and, although very soft, will, when thor- 
oughly dry, destroy the edge of tools quicker than many 
harder woods. It turns to a dull, unattractive brown as 
it ages, if it is finished in its natural color. 

It is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles, 
as it resists decay indefinitely. It shrinks both ways of 
the grain, and burns very slowly. 

(X.) Spruce (con.) is moderately hard and strong, and 
in New England is used generally for framing light build- 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 41 




Fig. 20. — Douglas Spruce Forest. 



42 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

ings and for rough boarding. Its color is almost pure 
white, and it has the valuable quality of holding nails 
firmly. There is little difference between the heart and 
the sap wood, and its texture is sometimes such that it is 
difficult to distinguish it from white pine. It warps and 
twists badly in seasoning, and on thaj: account is not suit- 
able for framing trusses, unless seasoned lumber is used. 

Spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards, for 
flooring, ceiling, and laths, and also by paper pulp manufac- 
turers in immense quantities. It is a fairly satisfactory 
wood for immersion, but if exposed to alternations of dry- 
ness and moisture, it decays rapidly. 

(Y.) Sycamore, or huttonwood (dec), is found in nearly 
all parts of the Mississippi valley and in the Eastern 
states. It is a moderately stiff and strong wood, coarse- 
grained, and quite difficult to smooth to a surface, as the 
grain seems to run in all directions at once. It has also 
a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons, 
but if well seasoned and properly handled, it will give no 
more trouble than do other woods. It takes a good 
polish, and is a desirable wood for inside finish. 

(Z.) Walnut, or black walnut (dec), is found in all the 
Middle and Eastern states. It is heavy, firm, and strong, 
of a chocolate color, and takes a fine finish. It is well 
adapted to inside finish and to furniture work. 

At one time nearly all the best work was done in this 
wood, but at present it is out of style, as oak and other 
woods are more in favor. Like other varieties of our best 
woods, this has been cut out, and is now too expensive to 
be considered as anything but a fancy wood. 

White walnut is described under butternut. 



LUMBERING AND VARIETIES OF WOOD 43 




Fig. 21. — ItEo kSPKUCE and Balsam 1'XK Killed uy I'lUi^. 



44 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



Suggestive Exercises 

8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large opera- 
tions ? What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill ? 
Why ? Compare the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why 
is scientific forestry a necessity ? 

9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed ? How 
much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber ? How are I boards usu- 
ally sawed ? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it ? To 
furnish dimension lumber ? Describe the advantages and the methods 
of quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to 
economy. Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking 
qualities. What are the different names by which quarter-sawed lum- 
ber is known ? 

10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are 
commonly graded. 

11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of 
timber is struck with the knuckles ? A wet or decaying piece ? What 
does it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board ? 
How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may in- 
cipient decay be stopped ? How may decay be prevented or cured ? 

12. How is lumber less than 1" in thickness surveyed ? Lumber 
over 1" in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To 
what lengths are logs sawed in the forest ? In surveying, where should 
a common board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demon- 
strate the use of the lumber scale. 

13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of 
timber for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside 
finish? For shingles? For siding? How long should lumber 
be dried before using ? How should lumber for inside finish be cared 
for while waiting for use ? Describe the qualities and the uses of the 
following kinds of lumber : ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butter- 
nut, cedar, cherry, chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust, 
maple, mahogany, oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut. 



CHAPTER III 

Care of Lumber 

14. The piling of lumber. — (A.) To the uninitiated it 
may seem that the pihng of lumber is work upon which it 
is not necessary to expend much skill, but there are few 
operations in which carelessness or ignorance will cause 
more loss to a wood-worker. 

(B.) The front end of a lumber pile should be higher 
than the back, therefore it is a good plan to locate it upon 
ground which falls away to the rear, or to build the ways 
which support the pile so that the water which drives 
into the pile will run out at the back end, and not stand 
upon the boards, as this will cause discolorations. 

15. Permanent lumber ways. — These should be built 
by some method similar to that shown in Fig. 22. It is 
not a good plan to lay timbers upon the ground, as they 
will decay rapidly, and there will not be sufficient room 
for air to circulate under the pile to allow the boards of 
the lower courses to dry out properly. The pile is also 
apt to settle when the frost comes out of the ground in the 
spring. Lumber should not be stacked above wet or 
marshy ground ; if necessary to stack it where the weeds 
are of rank growth, the latter should be kept down. 

The ways should be built with a solid foundation, well 
below the frost line, though this is rarely done except for 

45 



46 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



permanent lumber storage. This is shown at a, Fig. 22, 
in which it will be seen that the ways are built to stand a 
heavy load ; the space between the centers of the ways 
should be about five feet, as multiples of this distance will 
accommodate any length of boards. 

i6. To minimize the warping of lumber. — (A.) Do 
not place lumber piles less than one foot apart, as it is 




Fig. 22. — Permanent Lumber Ways. 

necessary that there should be a continuous circulation of 
air through the pile in all directions. (See b, Fig. 22.) 

(B.) Lumber piles are usually four feet in width, and 
should be built up with sticks of that length, which are 
placed between the courses of boards. It is important 
that these be placed directly over each other and the ways ; 
otherwise there will be short kinks in the boards, as 
shown at c. It is such carelessness as this that causes a 
great deal of loss. In piling very expensive lumber, the 
front sticks should be laid so as to project a little over the 



CARE OF LUMBER 47 

course of boards below, and the boards of the course 
above should project the same distance over the stick, in 
order to give the front of the pile an inclination to the 
front, as shown at d, which will allow most of the rain- 
water to drop clear of the boards below, instead of run- 
ning down the front and finding its way into the pile. 

(C.) Square piles are sometimes built, but in these the 
boards should be laid with large spaces between them, to 
allow perfect circulation of air. It is obvious that in a pile 
of this sort, the boards in the center of the pile will not 
come in contact with the air as much as those on the put- 
side, and that consequently, unless carefully piled, the 
boards may be damaged by the moisture souring instead 
of drying out, which usually results in decay. 

(D.) During the drying out process, all boards change 
their form more or less, depending upon the shape of the 
tree trunk, the kind and quality of the wood, the part of 
the tree from which the log was cut, as well as its size and 
age, the relation of the annual rings and medullary rays 
to the surfaces of the board, the length of time since the 
log was cut before being made into lumber, whether it 
had lain in water for several months, and the method of 
piling. Thus it will be seen that in every stage of pre- 
paring lumber for market, a high degree of skill and 
judgment is necessary to insure the best results. 

The greatest deterioration in lumber, after it has been cut 
and properly piled, is generally due to the tendency to 
warp, the cause of which is indicated in Fig. 23, and which 
may to great extent be minimized by skillful piling. If this 
sketch is studied carefully, it will be noticed that the middle 
board is thicker in the middle than it is at the edges, and 



48 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



to shrink around, 




that the curves of its top and bottom sides are prac- 
tically uniform. This is because the annual layers are 
at nearly a right angle with the sides of the board, which 
causes the board to shrink in thickness, and very little 
in width. This is due to the tendency of lumber 
or parallel with, the annual layers. 
This tendency also causes the star 
shakes, as at c, Fig. 3, which is 
because the inner layers of the log, 
being less than the outside layers in 
circumference, and less exposed to 
the dry air, do not shrink so fast nor 
so much. This tendency is again 
illustrated in Fig. 23, in which it will 
be seen that because the outer 
annual layers shrink faster, they 
cause the outside of the board, or 
the part which grew toward the outside of the tree, to 
become narrower, and to assume a concave shape, while 
the side nearer the center of the tree, or the inside of 
the board, becomes convex. This is also the reason why 
boards cut near the outside of the log will shrink in width 
more than those cut nearer the center, which shrink in 
thickness proportionately more than in width. 

(E.) For the purpose of taking advantage of the ten- 
dency to warp, and applying it to its own remedy, boards 
should be piled with the side which grew nearer the center 
of the tree uppermost. This will help to correct the 
tendency of the board to warp, as explained above, as the 
side which would naturally assume the concave shape will 
be underneath, and less likely to warp than if it were upper= 



Fig. 23. — Warping of 
Lumber. 



CARE OF LUMBER 



49 




Fig. 24. 



Lumber piled in Double 
Courses. 



most. This is not generally observed in stacking common 
lumber, since it needs care and judgment to do it prop- 
erly, but it should be done if valuable lumber is being 
handled. 

Boards of practically the same width, if less than 7" 
wide, are sometimes stacked in double courses, as shown 
in Fig. 24, the outside of 
the boards, or the sides 
which grew nearer the out- 
side of the tree being placed 
together, thus allowing the 
inside of the boards, or the 
sides which grew toward the 
center of the tree, to receive more air than the sides which 
are placed together, and therefore to dry out faster, which 
will reduce the warping to a minimum. After a pile is 
completed, it should be covered with old boards to protect 
the top courses from the weather. 

(F.) A pile of valuable lumber should be restacked 
every six or eight months, as the boards are apt to become 
discolored where the lumber sticks are placed ; in this 
rehandling, the warped boards should be placed with the 
concave side underneath. 

(G.) If lumber is cut in winter or midsummer, and 
properly cared for, it is not apt to be injured by any rain 
which may drive into the pile, if there is free circulation of 
air ; nor is it so liable to decay as lumber which is cut at 
other times of the year. 

17. Weather-dried lumber. — Lumber which has been 
dried in the stack out of doors is not dry enough for use in 
the manufacture of inside finish or furniture, as it has 
king's woodwork — 4 



50 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

dried out only to the degree of moisture in the outside air. 
If it is then worked up and placed in an artificially heated 
house, the heat will cause more moisture to evaporate, 
the wood to shrink, and the joints to open. For material 
to be used in the frames of buildings, in wagons, or in 
other places where the greatest possible strength is re- 
quired, not less than two years weather-drying is pre- 
ferred, as the material retains its full strength. 

i8. Kiln-dried lumber. — Lumber for furniture or for 
inside finish should be seasoned by the process known as 
" kiln-drying." This means that lumber is exposed to a 
temperature of from 120° to 200° F. by which the moisture 
is extracted and evaporated. Lumber thus treated is 
apt to be more or less weakened by the action of the heat 
upon the fibers of the wood, which causes thousands of 
minute fractures, and in many cases the life and the elas- 
ticity of the lumber is destroyed. The results of kiln- 
drying depend largely upon the kiln, and upon the skill 
with which the lumber is piled, the heat applied, and the 
rapidity of evaporation of the moisture regulated. 

For these reasons, much kiln-dried lumber is suitable 
for use where but little strength is required and where 
the color and the grain are the important points to 
consider. 

iQ. Moist air kilns. — (A.). There are two types of 
dry kilns in common use: the natural draft, or moist air, 
kilns, and the induced draft kilns. These two types are 
made by different manufacturers, nearly all of whom use 
certain devices of which they control the patents, and 
which constitute the chief difference between their kiln 
and those made by other manufacturers. 



CARE OF LUMBER 51 

(B.) The moist air kilns are so constructed as to 
allow the freest possible circulation of the heated air, 
and to provide opportunities for the moisture to be 
expelled in accordance with certain natural laws, which 
results are obtained by a carefully planned and managed 
system of ventilation. These kilns operate upon the 
principle that heated air circulating naturally through 
lumber will become charged to a much greater degree with 
moisture than if it were forced through rapidly, as in the 
induced draft kilns. Thus, heated air by passing slowly 
through a pile of lumber may become charged with mois- 
ture nearly to the dew point. 

If the humidity of the heated air is maintained at that 
point, by allowing the moisture to pass out as it accu- 
mulates, with a small amount of heated air, which is 
replaced with fresh air from the outside, it is claimed that 
the boards will dry out from their centers. (C.) As the 
warm, moist air which circulates through the pile will 
keep the outsides of the boards moist, it will prevent case 
hardening, or the hardening of the outsides of the boards. 
This is caused by very warm dry air, which '^ cooks," 
or closes the pores of the surface of the boards, and this 
prevents the outsides from shrinking, while the insides 
will be so badly checked and discolored as to destroy the 
boards. 

After the moisture is all out of the lumber, that held in 
suspension will gradually pass out of the kiln, and the air 
inside will become perfectly dry. 

(D.) It is claimed that all kinds of lumber in com- 
mon use may be put into this type of kiln perfectly 
green, except oak and other very hard woods, which 



52 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

should have at least thirty days' drying under good dry- 
ing conditions for each inch in thickness. It is also claimed 
that the moist air kiln is simply weather drying accel- 
erated, — the moisture being thoroughly extracted from the 
lumber, the result being the same as though it were stacked 
out of doors for several years, — and that the lumber has 
lost none of its strength, elasticity, or characteristic color. 

(E.) This method sometimes is applied by steam pipes 
extending between each course of boards, and in this 
way the lumber is dried out very rapidly. Lumber used 
in this sort of kiln should be thoroughly weather-dried, or 
otherwise the high temperature will cause it to check 
badly. In certain forms of these kilns, the lumber is 
saturated with live steam after it is piled in the kiln, before 
the heat is turned on. 

20. Induced draft kilns. — (A.) This system of kiln- 
drying consists of a power-driven fan, which forces the 
heated air at a high rate of speed through the spaces be- 
tween and around the lumber piled in the chamber. 

(B). Manufacturers have different devices for extract- 
ing the moisture from the air after it has passed through 
the lumber piles. It may be passed over condensing plates, 
or through coils of pipes in which cold water is continually 
circulating, both of these devices being for the purpose of 
extracting the moisture from . the heated air. If the 
moisture is separated from the air by condensation, it runs 
away, but if not, a certain per cent of the heated air is 
expelled out of doors, being replaced by fresh air. The 
air in the kiln, somewhat cooled from contact with these 
cooled surfaces, is returned to the heater, reheated, and 
again forced through the kiln, which operation is repeated 



CARE OF LUMBER 53 

continuously and automatically. Thus the heated air 
becomes charged with a small percentage of moisture each 
time it passes through the kiln chamber ; this moisture is 
extracted and the air is again heated before beginning 
another circuit, instead of slow circulation which allows 
the heated air to become saturated with moisture be- 
fore it is discharged, as in the moist air kiln. 

The induced draft dry kiln requires quite an expensive 
equipment, as the blower and the appliance which drive 
it are necessary in addition to the equipment of the kiln 
itself, which would be similar in either of the types of kiln 
described. Lumber to be dried in this form of kiln must 
be well weather-dried before it is exposed to the high 
temperature of the kiln. 

21. Results of the two systems. — While it is not the 
province of this book to pass judgment upon the results 
of the different methods or forms of dry kilns, it is obvious 
that the induced draft kiln is the more expensive to oper- 
ate, as the expense of running the blower is avoided in 
the moist air system. In this latter type of kiln the steam 
simply passes through the pipes, the condensation being 
returned to the boiler to be reheated, so the only expense 
is that of maintaining the fire to keep up a low pressure. 
In the daytime, or while the engine which furnishes the 
power for the plant is running, the kilns of either type may 
be heated by exhaust steam. 

Many users of one or both systems seem satisfied with 
the results obtained from either, while others are decided 
in their preference. 

22. Filling a kiln. — In doing this, care should be 
used that there is plenty of room for the air to circulate 



54 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

freely around and through the pile — not less than 3' 
between the edges of the boards horizontally and vertically, 
and one foot between the lumber and the wall or ad j acent pile. 
Each course of boards should be so planned as to bring the 
same width over those of the course below, if possible, in 
order to keep a vertical air space through the pile. In 
some cases the kiln is filled by placing the boards edgeways. 

23. Length of time lumber should be left in the kiln. — 
No one should undertake to operate a kiln unless he 
understands perfectly the particular make of the kiln that 
he is handling, for if the ventilation is not correctly regu- 
lated, the entire charge of the kiln may become mildewed, 
casehardened, checked, discolored, or dried unevenly. 
No rule can be given for the time which lumber should be 
left in the kiln, as it depends upon the condition of the 
lumber, temperature, kind of lumber, dimensions, and 
ventilation. Generally speaking, if the kiln is properly 
constructed and operated, from two to four days for 
each inch in thickness of soft wood, and from two to 
three times as long, at a lower temperature, for hard 
wood, is usually enough to extract the moisture. It is, 
however, best to allow the lumber to stay in the kiln, at 
a moderate temperature, from three days to two weeks 
after the moisture is extracted, in order to harden and 
cook the solids of the sap, as by so doing the lumber is 
not so liable to be influenced by moisture in the future; 
this is the effect that long weather-drying accomplishes. 

24 . The care of kiln-dried lumber. — It is a common 
mistake to allow lumber to lie in an open shed or other 
place where it will absorb moisture from the atmosphere, 
and still call it kiln-dried. Lumber of this sort should 



CARE OF LUMBER 55 

be kept in a place where heat can be applied in damp 
weather, and should be stacked in a close, compact pile, 
so as to prevent the air from coming in contact with it. 

25. Steaming wood. — This process makes wood pliable, 
and adds to its dm^ability by destroying the germs which 
may cause decay ; it also neutralizes, to a great extent, 
the effect of the presence of sap. Steaming or immersing 
wood in boiling water minimizes its tendency to shrink 
and swell, and wood thus treated is not so apt to check 
in seasoning. Steamed wood loses some of its original 
strength on account of the effect of the high temperature 
upon the fibers. 

26. Preserving wood. — In order to preserve wood, it 
is sometimes treated with creosote or other chemicals, 
which are forced into the wood at a sufficient pressure to 
cause them to permeate the wood thoroughly. This 
treatment enables the wood to resist better the el'ements 
and to keep away insects, which do a great deal of damage, 
frequently honeycombing the wood with holes, with little 
or no evidence of their presence upon the outside. 

Suggestive Exercises 

14. What are some of the results of pilinti; lumber carelessly ? Should 
the back and the front of the lumber pile l)e upon the same level? 
Why? 

15. How should lumber ways be built ? What kind of places should 
be avoided in seeking a location for lum])er piles? 

16. Should the piles be placed close to each other? How wide 
should the piles be made? What is the objection to a square pile? 
How thick should the luml:)er sticks be ? How should they be placed ? 
What is the result if they are not carefully placed ? How should the 
sticks and the ends of the boards be placed at the front of the pile? 



56 ELEMENTS OF WOODWOOK 

Why? What causes lumber to warp? Describe methods of piling 
lumber to minimize warping. Should a lumber pile be allowed to stand 
indefinitely ? What is the proper time to cut lumber ? Does it injure 
lumber to allow a little rain to beat into the pile ? 

17. What is meant by weather-dried lumber? Why is it not suit- 
able for furniture and for inside finish ? How is this remedied ? For 
what purposes is weather-dried lumber the best? 

18. What is the chief objection to kiln-drying lumber? 

19. What are the two methods of kiln-drying? Describe the prin- 
ciple of the moist air kiln. What is claimed of it ? How should hard 
wood lumber be treated before being kiln-dried ? 

20. Describe the induced draft system. What devices are used to 
extract the moisture from the heated air ? What are the main points 
of difference between the two systems? 

21. What is the difference in the condition of lumber which may be 
put in the two forms of kilns ? Which is the more expensive system to 
install and operate ? How do users of the two systems compare them ? 

22. How should lumber be stacked in the kiln? 

23. How long should lumber generally remain in the kiln to allow 
the moisture to be extracted? How long to insure most permanent 
results ? 

24. How should kiln-dried lumber be cared for? 

25. What is the effect of steaming wood? 

26. How is wood sometimes treated to preserve it from the elements 
and from insects ? 



CHAPTER IV 

Tools 

27. How to purchase tools. — (A.) The quaUty of the 
tools used by the mechanic is of the greatest importance. 
They should be selected carefully, and while it is the 
poorest economy to buy anything but the best, the best 
are not necessarily the most finely finished. 

(B.) In purchasing tools, it is well to remember that 
those made especially for some dealer, and bearing his 
name, if sold for a less price than the best, are usually not 
of the highest grade, and should be shunned. It is wisest 
to buy standard makes, examining them carefully to be 
sure that there are no visible defects. The temper of 
steel may be discovered only by use, and any defects in 
the best grades of tools is made good upon complaint to 
the dealer. 

28. Benches. — (A.) Figure 25 shows the type of bench 
used in the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops, 
while that used by carpenters for ordinary work usually is 
of the type shown in Fig. 26. 

(B.) In many manual-training schools, the benches are 
of the former type, and in the most completely equipped 
schools, are fitted with locked drawers and closets for the 
reception of tools, not only to keep the latter in condition 
for use, but to insure that the set of tools is complete, and 
to be able to place the responsibility for damage or loss. 

57 



58 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig. 25. — Manual-training Bench. 




Fig. 20. — C'arpenter's Bench. 



TOOLS 



59 



(C.) The vises should be of the modern, quick action 
design, which, on account of the rapidity with which they 
work, are superseding the old-fashioned wooden and iron 
screw vises. 




I'U 



Twcj-i'(ju'i', lujiai-i'OLD Rule. 



29. Rules. — The two-foot, four-fold rule (Fig. 27) is 
the one generally used by carpenters. It is made of dif- 
ferent grades, the more expensive makes 
being divided into 16ths, 8ths, lOths, and 
12ths, and having the V', ¥', ¥\ ¥\ i", 
V\ 1¥\ and ,3'^ scales upon them. 
Although the cheaper rule is just as ac- 
curate, it is divided usually into 8ths and 
IGths only. The form of rule shown in 
Fig. 28 is becoming quite popular, as it 
is longer. Since rules are easily lost or 
broken, many workmen have a good rule 
for scaling, and a cheaper one for gen- 
eral work. 

30. The try-square (A.) consists of the 
beam (Fig. 29, a), which is generally of metal-lined 
wood, and the blade (b), which is a thin piece of steel. 

(B.) Too much care cannot be exercised in the selec- 
tion of this tool, as one which is not perfectly true may 




Fig. 28. — Zigzag 
Rule, 



60 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig. 29. — Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge. 




Fig. 30. — Use of Two Try -squares to See if Piece of Wood is "Out 

OF Wind." 

cause much trouble. To test a square, hold the beam 
against a perfectly straight and square edge of a board 
which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made the 



TOOLS 



61 



entire length of the blade. Then turn the square over, 
the other side up, and, holding the beam against the same 
edge, move the blade to the line. If the jointed edge 
of the board and the square are perfectly accurate, the 
knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide. 

(C.) The use of this 
tool in squaring an 
edge is shown in Fig. 
29. The piece being 
squared should be in 
such a position that 
the try-square will be 
between the eye and 
the light; in this way, 
the slightest inaccu- 
racy may be detected. 
In Fig. 31 is shown 
the position of the 
try-square when used 
to make a line by the 
edge of the blade. 
If working from the 
edge indicated, hold 
the beam against the edge with the thumb, and at the 
same time hold the blade down with one or two fingers, 
using the others to steady the square in its place upon 
the board. (D.) Two try-squares may be used to see if 
a piece of wood is ^'out of wind " (i sounded as in kind) 
by the method indicated in Fig. 30. 

Two pieces of wood known as winding sticks, of ex- 
actly the same width and perfectly parallel, are often 




Position of Try-squake avhen 
Making Line. 



82 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



used in manuai-training schools for this purpose; they 
are rarely used in a shop, however, as a workman gen- 
erally will use two steel squares if the piece is too large 
to be sighted accurately without some aid of this sort. 



S;^ VSV^'^.'^-V ' xV -^ VV,^ 




Fig. 32. — Steel, or Framing, Square. 

31. The steel, or framing, square (Fig. 32) is often 
used as a try-square upon large work, though its most im- 
portant use is in framing, or roof construction. It is indis- 
pensable in finding the lengths and the angles of rafters, 

braces, etc. Its use for this 
purpose will be explained 
in " Constructive Carpen- 
try." The long side of the 
framing square is known as 
the '* blade," and the short 
side as the ^' tongue." 

32. The bevel (Fig. 33) 
may be set for use in mark- 
ing and testing any angle, , 
,in the same manner that 
the try-square is used upon 
rectangular work. The 
sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for 
setting the bevel at an angle of 45°. It will be noticed 
that the blade of the bevel rests upon the same figures 
upon both the blade and the tongue of the square. 




Fig. 33. — Bevel and Steel Square. 
The bevel is set at an angle of 45°. 



TOOLS 



63 



is for the purpose of niak- 
or working side or edge. 




Fig. 34. 



IMauking Gauge. 



the head; bh, the .stick; c, the thumb- 
screw; d, the point. 



^S- The gauge (A.), Fig. :U 
ing lines parallel to the face 
Usually it is made in four 
pieces : the " head " (a), 
which is held against the face 
side or edge; the ''stick" 
(bb), upon w^hich the head 
moves; the ''thumbscrew" 
(c), w^hich holds the head 
firmly in its position upon 
the stick; and the "point" 
(d), which makes the desired 
mark upon the wood. 

(B.) A rule should be used in setting the gauge, unless 
one is certain that the point is located accurately with 
regard to the graduations upon the stick. 

The point should be sharpened to work with either a 
push or pull cut, as at e. 

(C.) The gauge should be grasped as shown in Fig. 35, 
and generally used with a push, though it is occasionally 
pulled toward the worker. One should always work from 
the face side of the piece. 

If the point enters the wood too deeply, it may be set 
back, or the gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indi- 
cated, which will govern the depth of the cut. Do not use 
a dull gauge; or one with a round point like a pencil, as it 
will tear the wood, instead of making a clean cut or scratch. 

34. The hammer (A.) is used by the average wood- 
worker more than any other tool. The "face" (Fig. 
36, a) and the " claws " (b) should be tempered care- 
fully, as they will either bruise or bend if too soft, or 



64 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



break if too hard. The eye (c) is made longer than it is 
wide, to prevent the head from turning on the handle, 
and larger at the outside of the head than it is at the neck, 




Fig. 35. — Marking Gauge in Use. 



so that the handle may be firmly wedged in the eye or 
socket. The neck (d), by extending upon the handle as it 
does, adds much to the strength of the connection. 




Fig. 36. — Claw Hammer. 

o, thefac^; b, the claws; c, the eye; d, the neck; e, grain of neck. 

The handle should be of young, tough, straight-grained 
hickory, elliptical in section, and of a size to be grasped 
easily. 



TOOLS 65 

The grain should be perfectly straight at the neck, and 
the annual layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at 
the end, as at e. The handle should be fitted and wedged, 
or '' hung " in such a way that a nail may be driven home 
in a flat surface without the knuckles striking, which 
means that the center of the handle should be about paral- 
lel with the fiat surface. A line lengthwise of the head 
through the eye should exactly coincide with the long, or 
major, axis of the ellipse at the end of the handle, as at gg, 
or pounded fingers will result. 

The hell-faced hammer is to be preferred to the flat- 
faced type, as it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is 
missed, though more skill is required to use it. Upon rough 
work, the bell-faced hammer will sink the nail beneath the 
surface without bruising the w^ood badly. Upon inside work, 
the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a nail set. 

(B.) In nailing, the young workman should acquire the 
habit of grasping the handle of the hammer at the end, 
as this will give greater force to the 
l:)low. Upon light work, the hand 
will naturally slip a little toward 
the head Nails should generally 
be driven in a slanting direction, 
as they hold better than if driven 
straight. When nails are driven as 
shown at a. Fig. 37, it is called 
'Uoenaihng," and when driven suffi- „ toenaiii.!!*: 6,'tacking. 
ciently to hold, but not driven home, 

as at 6, they are said to be ''tacked." Nails are driven 
this v/ay when they are to be pulled out again, as in stay 
laths, and in fastening pieces temporarily. 

KINfj's WOODWORK 5 




66 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



In forcing matched boards together, do not pound 
directly upon the tongue edge of the board, but upon a 
waste piece of the same material, as the tongue will be 

bruised so that the 
next board will not 
form a good joint. 
Care should be used 
that the hammer 
does not strike the 
edge of the board 
when the nail is 
driven home. To 
guard against this, a 
nail set should be 
used to sink the 
head beneath the sur- 
face, as in Fig. 38, so 
that the next board 
will come to its place 
without trouble. 
This is called ^^ blind 
nailing." 

35. The hatchet 
(A.) is used for hew- 
ing light work, for shingling; and as a heavy hammer, 
though the face is rarely tempered to stand very heavy 
usage (Fig. 39, a). 

(B.) A hand axe, or broad hatchet (Fig. 39, h), usually 
is a better grade of tool than the hatchet, and as it is of 
greater weight, is better adapted for heavy work. A 
hatchet or hand axe for general use should be sharpened 




Fig. 38. 



Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail 

Set. 



TOOLS 



67 




Fig. 39. — «, hatchet; 6, hand axe. 
(For explanation, see text.) 



as at c; but for hewing only, an edge like d will give the 

best results. 

36. The mallet. — This tool should be used upon chisel 

handles, as a hammer 

will destroy the handle 

in a very short time. 

Mallets are of two 

shapes, the square-faced 

(Fig. 40, a) and the 

round mallet {h), the 

latter being preferred 

by many workmen as it 

will always strike a fair blow upon the chisel handle, while 

the square-faced mallet sometimes will miss, and inflict a 

painful blow upon the hand. In general, the handle of 

a square-faced mallet is round, 
v/hich allows the mallet to turn 
in the hand ; if the handle were 
made elliptical, like a hammer 
handle, there would be less 
likelihood of missing the chisel. 
37. Saws. — (A.) The saws 
used by the carpenter are for 
cutting parallel with, or across. 
Fig. 40. — Mallets. the grain, or a Combination of 

a. square-faced mallet; fe, round mallet, the tWO, and all are COmpOSed 

of two parts, the ''handle" and the '' blade." 

The teeth of a ripsaw (Fig. 41, A) are suitable for sawing 
in a direction parallel with the general direction of the 
grain. The points of different saws may be from one 
third to one seventh of an inch apart, and form a series of 




68 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig. 41, A. Ripsaw. 

(Id, view and section of setting of teeth. 



^^y^^^7^.^-^i^s,^-^Jv/--.^^J^-xJ^ 



chisels, the cutting edges of which are filed so that they 
are at right angles to the sides of the blade. In action, 
the saw is pushed against the wood, each tooth cutting 

a little deeper than 
ri^«i: -'n i iiiiii i C''- i « i i ic 'Mi i i iiii ii ii ic-m irgii!B^^ thc ouc prcccdiug it. 

The cutting-off 
saw (Fig. 41, 5) has 
from six to twelve 
knife-pointed teeth 
to an inch, the cut- 
ting edges being 
parallel to the sides 
of the blade, and 
filed so that the 
point of the tooth 
is upon the side 
which is set beyond 
the side of the blade. 

In all except the 
finest saws, the 
teeth are set; that 
is, the points are 
bent a very little in 
such a way as to 
make the cut wider 
than the thickness 
of the blade, so that 
the saw may cut 
through the wood 
without binding, 
which it could not 




MK^SA/^-A/SA^^A^^^\A^^ 




Fig. 41, C. Compass, ok Keyhole, Saw. 

Fig. 41. — Saws. 

(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown 

Fig. 41, the set of the teeth is exaggerated.) 



TOOLS 60 

do if the cut were the same thickness as the blade. The 
1 )Lides of all hio;h o;rade saws are thinner upon the back than 
upon the cutting edge, but if the saw is to be used upon the 
finest work, this difference in the thickness of the two edges 
of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw un- 
necessary. For general work, it will be found that the saw 
will be much more efficient if it is given a set adapted to 
the size of the teeth, or to the nature of the work it is ex- 
pected to do. 

The compass, or keyhole, saw (Fig. 41, C) is used where 
it is necessary that the saw should cut both with and across 
the grain. It is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting- 
off saw, when a cut has to be made in the surface of a 
board. This saw is used also in many places where it is 
not practicable to use a larger saw, and for sawing curves. 
In order to allow it to cut around curves easily, the face, or 
cutting edge, is considerably thicker than the back, and 
the blade is made of soft metal. It may then be given 
a heavy set, so that it will bend instead of breaking or 
kinking, as it would be liable to do from the nature of its 
work if made of tempered steel. 

Some carpenters working upon job work, where it is 
desirable to carry as few tools as possible, have a narrow 
20'' or 22'' saw sharpened like 
a compass saw, which for 
ordinary work is quite satis- 
factory as either a cutting-off 
or a ripsaw, thus making 

^ ' ^ Fic. 42. — Backsaw. 

another saw unnecessary. 

The hacksaw (Fig. 42) is used upon fine work ; it is 
filed like a cutting-off saw, but the teeth have rather 




70 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

more hook, and it often has as many as fifteen teeth to the 
inch, though a twelve-tooth saw is as fine as is generally 
used. The thick back is to stiffen the blade of the saw, 
and if the latter becomes sprung, a light blow upon the 
back, as though to drive it upon the blade, will usually 
straighten it. 

(B.) In buying a saw, select one which is thicker upon 
the cutting edge than upon the back ; this allows the saw 
to be used upon very fine work with little or no setting. 
See that the handle fits the hand, and that the saw hangs to 
suit, or ^' feels right." This is a matter concerning the 
balance and the weight of the tool, which cannot be de- 
scribed, but which any one accustomed to using tools will 
miss if a tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand. 

A saw blade, unless very short and thick, should bend 
so that the point may be put through the handle, and 
upon being released, instantly resume its shape. It should 
bend evenly in proportion to the width and the gauge of 
the saw, and should be as thin as the stiffness of the blade 
will permit, as a saw of this sort cuts less wood, and there- 
fore runs with less resistance. A compass saw, being 
softer, is not expected to stand the above test. 

A 26" or a 28" blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting- 
off saw to be used upon coarse work; but for fine work, 
a 22" blade, commonly known. as a ^^ panel saw," is a con- 
venient size, though a 20" or a 24" blade is preferred by 
many workmen. 

(C.) A hard saw is best for fine work, but for general work 
most workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness, as the 
teeth of a hard saw are apt to break in setting, and its 
edge, if it comes in contact with metal, requires filing just 



TOOT.S 



71 



about as quickly 
as that of a soft 
saw, and is much 
more difficult to 
sharpen. If always 
filed by an expert 
filer, a hard saw is 
superior in every 
way to any other. 
(D.) The handle 
of the saw should 
be grasped firmly 
by three fingers, 
as in Fig. 43, with 
the forefinger ex- 
tended along the 




Fir.. 43. — Use of the Saw. 
Showing tlie method of using a try-square to insure accuracy. 



72 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig 



44. — Reset Saw 
Handle. 



side, thus making more room for the three fingers, and 
giving better control of the saw. Very Uttle strength 
should be used in forcing a fine saw 
to cut, as its own weight generally is 
sufficient ; if the saw is forced, it will 
not run smoothly, but will bind, and 
if a thin board is being worked, it is 
apt to split. The saw should be used 
from the face side of the material, so 
that any splinters or variation will be upon the back side 
and out of sight. 

(E.) It is the custom of some carpenters to reset the 
handles of their heavy saws by drilling holes through the 
blade so that the handle may be fastened as close to 
the cutting edge as possible, as in Fig. 44. This brings the 
force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the cut, which 
obviously allows a more economical application of force. 
Never leave a saw in a cut, for if the piece of wood falls off 
the trestles, the saw is apt to be broken. (Saw-filing will 
be discussed later.) 

38. The knife blade used by the wood-worker for gen- 
eral work is similar to that shown in 
Fig. 45, at A. That shown at B is the 
form of blade in most common use in 
manual-training schools, as it is better 
adapted for whittling, its shape assist- 
ing the student to some extent to pre- 
vent the knife from following the grain. 

39. Planes. — (A.) The plane is the 
most complex, as well as one of the most important, 
tools which the wood-worker uses, and a high grade of 




Fig. 45. — Knife Blades. 

A, used by wood -worker; 
B, vised in manual-training 
schools. 



TOOLS 



73 



skill is necessary to keep it in order, as well as to use it 
properly. 

(B.) The only plane in use until recent years had a 
wooden stock, and the iron was adjusted by blows with 
a hammer ; this form of plane has changed very little 
since the first types were invented, as planes of ancient 




Fig. 4G. — Section of Iron Plane. 

1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap lever; 4 a, cam; 5, cap screw; 
6, frog; 6a, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8, vertical adjusting nut; 8a, vertical adjusting screw; 9, 
lateral adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and nut; 14, bolt 
knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock. 

times have been found which in all essentials are prac- 
tically the same as those in use to-day. 

(C.) Our modern planes are more easily adjusted and 
more convenient to use, though they will do no better 
work than the wooden planes of our forefathers, ^ hich are 
still preferred by many of the best workmen. The face of 
an iron plane holds its shape permanently, while it is neces- 
sary that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally. 



74 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig. 47. — Result of Using Plane 
"v\iTH Improperly AdjustedCap 
Iron. 



(D.) There are planes for every conceivable purpose, 
all constructed upon the same general principle as the 

common bench plane which 
we shall discuss later. These 
planes are adjusted by screws 
and levers, which are very 
simple, and any one under- 
standing them may easily com- 
prehend the more intricate 
molding or universal planes. 

The adjustment of the 
modern plane may be under- 
stood by a careful study of Fig. 46 and by comparing 
it with the plane itself. The '' cutter," '' iron," or '' bit " 
(1) and the '' cap iron " (2) are the essentials of the tool, and 
it is upon their condition and adjustment that the effi- 
ciency of the plane depends. If the cap iron is set too 
far from the edge of the iron, and if the cut is made against 
the grain, the shaving will not break before it leads the 
iron into the wood, as shown in 
Fig. 47. If the cap iron is set 
somewhat less than h'^ from 
the edge of the cutter, accord- 
ing to the wood being planed, 
it will break the shaving nearly 
as soon as it is cut, as in Fig. 48, 
and will result in a smooth, clean 
surface. The closer the cap iron 
is set to the edge, the smoother 

the iron will cut, as the breaks in the shaving are thereby 
made shorter. 




Fig. 48. — Result of Using 
Plane with Cap Iron Ad- 
justed Properly. 



TOOLS 75 

It will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron 
(2) is set to the edge of the cutter (1), the shorter the 
breaks will be, as in Fig. 48, and the more smoothly the 
plane will cut. The plane "iron screw " (3) holds the edge of 
the cutter (1) and the bottom of the cap iron (2) in their 
desired relation. The " cap lever" (4) being pressed against 
the under side of the head of the "cap screw" (5), by the 
" cam " (4 a), holds the iron in its place, and presses the 
cap iron (2) firmly against the top of the cutter (1). Un- 
less the cap iron fits the face of the cutter perfectly, the 
plane will not work satisfactorily. The " frog " (6) 
carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane, and may 
be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the 
" mouth" (6 a), which should be no larger than is nec- 
essary to allow the shavings to pass freely. The frog 
rarely will require readjusting after it has been properly 
located. 

The " Y lever " (7) forces the plane irons (1 and 2) 
in or out simultaneously, which governs the projection, 
or "set," of the edge of the cutter (1) beyond the face, or 
" sole " (b) of the " plane stock," and thus the thickness 
of the shaving which the plane will cut. The " adjusting 
nut " (8) moves freely upon the " screw " (8 a) and oper- 
ates the Y lever (7). The " lateral adjustment " (9) is for 
the purpose of forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of 
the width of the face (h) of the plane. The two " frog 
screws" (10) hold the frog rigidly in the position which 
will make the throat (6 a) of the desired size. 

The above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism ; the 
other parts of the plane are as follows : " handle " (11) ; 
" knob " (12) ; " handle bolt " and " nut " (13) ; " knob 



76 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



bolt " and " nut " (14) ; " handle screw " (15) ; " bot- 
tom," or " stock " (16). 

The face, or sole, of the plane (b) must be perfectly 
straight, or good work cannot be done. The ends of the 

plane (h and t) are 
called the ^' heel " and 
'' toe," respectively. 
The ^^ mouth" of the 
plane (between 6 a 
and 2) must be kept 
clear of shavings, 
or it may become 
clogged. 

(E.) In setting a 
plane, do not pass 
the fingers over the 
face, or sole, as cut 
fingers may result. 
Hold ■ the plane as 
shown in Fig. 49, 
and look toward the 
light, when the exact 
projection of the cutter may be seen. Notice the position 
of the fingers of the left hand, and that the eye glances 
from toe to heel. This leavesr the right hand free to make 
the adjustments. This is a workmanlike way of setting a 
plane, and in this, as in all handling of tools, awkwardness 
should be avoided. 

40. Sharpening a plane. — (A.) An important part of 
this process is the grinding of the cutter. Set the cap 
back about J'' from the edge of the iron, and use it as a 




Fig. 49. — Setting a Plane. 



TOOLS 



77 




guide by which to grind the iron perfectly square, as at 
A, Fig. 50. The cap iron should be kept perfectly square, 
and never touched except to fit it to the cutter, or, if it is 
too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely, to file the 
top of it to the proper thickness. If the tool is kept in 
order skillfully, the cap 
will need care only upon 
rare occasions. 

The cutter should be 
held firmly to the grind- 
stone or emery wheel 
and kept moving from 
side to side to prevent 
wearing the stone in 
one place. The grind- 
ing should all be done 
upon the beveled side of 
the cutter, which should be held upon the stone at an 
angle of about 20° (as at B, Fig. 50), more rather than 
less, as a thinner edge is apt to '' chatter," or vibrate, if 
it strikes a hard place in the wood. Many workmen use 
a rest when grinding ; this insures a true bevel. Any 
device which holds the tool firmly at the same place on 
the stone will do for a rest. 

In whetting the cutter, the screw of the cap iron should 
be loosened and the cap iron carried back until the screw 
stops at the top of the slot of the bit, as at C, Fig. 50. 
The screw is then tightened with the fingers to hold the 
cap in place ; this gives a better grasp of the iron, though 
some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while 
whetting. 



Fig. 50. — Whetting and Grinding op 

Plane. 

(For explanation, see text.) 



78 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



The bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the 
surface of the oilstone, as shown at C, Fig. 50. the iron 
being grasped as in Fig. 51. Keep the right wrist rigid 
and allow the arm to swing from the shoulder, bending 
only at the elbow. In this way the rocking motion may 
be reduced to a minimum ; this is necessary to preserve 
the bevel. Though the bevel may be maintained better 




Fig. 51. — ^ Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter. 

by imparting a short circular motion to the plane iron, or 
to any edge tool which is being sharpened, it seems an awk- 
ward and fussy method of work, and rarely is used by an 
expert workman. By long practice the mechanic finds 
that a stroke made nearly the entire length of the stone 
will impart an edge quicker, and after the knack has been 
acquired, the bevel will be preserved just as well. 

Turn the whetstone end for end frequently, and work 
upon the farther end, as in this way the stone may be 
kept true much longer than if one place upon it is used all 



TOOLS 



79 



the time. This will also miiiiniizc the danger of pulling 
the tool off from the nearer end of the stone, which will 
generally make regrinding necessary. 

When the beveled side has been whetted, lay the face, 
or the top of the iron, perfectly flat upon the stone, as in 
Fig. 52, holding it down with the fingers of the left hand, 



bgS 


Wf/M 


|A 


^^I^HP^ 


I^H 


mW.., ^ 


^^L 




^^H^F^^^^^^H 


r3 


^^*^^^,;IS';^.^| 




■K^^Mid^^H 


m^0 


^M 


9^ 


K 


im^ 


'^''I^^^bI 


1 


^^"^Tlpiii. 


» . 


< wtBtBM 


m 



Fig. 52. — Whetting or Oilstoning the Pi.ain Sii 



IF THE Plane Ikon. 



using the right hand only to move the iron back and forth. 
Care should be used that under no circumstances is the 
face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from the stone. 
At this stage of sharpening a plane iron, the utmost care 
is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its 
perfectly straight surface at the edge, as the slightest 
deviation from absolute accuracy at this place will prevent 
the cap iron from fitting properly, which will cause end- 



OF 

Plane Iron. 



80 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

less trouble, as the shavings will be forced between the 
cap and the face of the iron (see C. of this topic). 

(B.) The shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter 
has an important influence upon its efficiency. Imagine 
the edge divided into three equal parts : the middle part 
should be perfectly straight, or almost im- 
perceptibly rounded; the two outside thirds 
should be slightly and gradually rounded 
until the corners of the iron are so short that 
Fig. 53.— Shape there will be uo danger of their projecting 
Edge of ]jQ[Qy^ the face of the plane. This gives 
the edge an elliptical shape, as shown in 
Fig. 53, which is somewhat exaggerated, as the shape 
shown is about that which would be seen if a moderately 
coarse jack plane were held as in Fig. 49. 

(C.) In order to insure fine work, the cap iron must be 
fitted so carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter 
that, if necessary, it may be placed less than e^th of an inch 
from the cutting edge, though this would rarely be required 
except upon very cross-grained wood. 

In fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter, a very 
fine, sharp file should be used. The filing must all be 
done upon the under side of the cap iron, at the places 
where it rests upon the face or top of the cutter; or, if 
preferred, the cap may be very carefully bent, but unless 
there is considerable fitting necessary, and unless the joint 
is perfected by the use of a file, this method is not 
recommended. 

If sufficient care and skill are exercised, a plane may be 
sharpened and adjusted so finely that a veneer of .01'' 
or less in thickness of bird's-eye maple, burl walnut, 



TOOLS 81 

ash, or similar wood may be smoothed. It is not wise, 
however, to spend the time necessary to keep a plane 
sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work, as a 
scraper and sandpaper, or the latter alone, is the most 
economical way to smooth woods of such nature. 

(D.) To remedy clogging of the mouth, remove the con- 
ditions which cause it ; simply digging out the shavings 
is useless. An improperly fitted cap iron is one of the 
principal causes of trouble ; the cutter may be ground so 
thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard place, 
the iron chatters, which allows the shavings an entrance 
under the cap iron. In this lies the only real advan- 
tage of a wooden plane over the modern iron plane, as in 
the former the iron is much thicker and stiffer. The 
cap iron may be so thick that it causes the shavings to 
curl too much, or the frog may be set too far to the 
front, which will make the mouth too small. This latter 
may be remedied by moving the frog back, but in a 
wooden plane, the mouth and the throat would have to 
be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear them- 
selves properly. 




Fig. 54. — Jack Plane. 



41. The jack plane (Fig. 54) generally is 15" long, 
and its ordinary use is for the purpose of roughing out a 

king's woodwork — 6 



82 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

piece of wood for jointing or smoothing. If it is properly 
sharpened, it may be used as a smoothing plane, or as a 
jointer upon small work, as it is capable of doing as good 
work as any plane. 

The jack plane generally is ground more rounding, and 
the cap set farther back than in the other planes, espe- 
cially if it is to be used upon rough work. 

42. The jointer. — (A.) This tool is from 20'' to 26" 
long, and is used to straighten edges and surfaces, or to 
fit them together. The shape of the edge of the cutter 
of this plane should be but slightly elliptical, less so than 
the jack plane or the smoother, unless the two latter are 
fitted for doing very fine work. 

(B.) In using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge, 
it should be carried to one side or the other of its face as 
may be necessary to take advantage of the elliptically 
shaped edge of the cutter, by cutting a shaving thicker on 
one edge than on the other, thus making the edge of the 
board square with the face side. 

To make a perfectly square edge, the cut should be 
made in the center of both the iron and the width of the 
face of the plane. The plane should be held as shown 
in Fig. 55, the fingers under the face of the plane, the 
tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly, guid- 
ing the plane, and keeping the bit cutting in one place 
upon its edge. 

43. The smoothing plane (A.) is of the same type and 
mechanism as those described above, though it is but 
9 or lO'Mong; if satisfactory work is expected from it, 
it must be kept in good order, with the cap iron perfectly 
fitted. For general work, it is not necessary to spend the 



TOOLS 



83 



time to insure that the ])hine should be continually in 
readiness to work u])on hard, tou^h, cr()ss-j>;rained wood, 
as a plane to do the latter kind of work well is unnecessary 
upon softer or straight-grained wood. For ordinary 
work, the cap iron should be set from i-i" to ^\/' from the 




¥v(i. 55. -Mt:Tii(ji> of Guiding a Jointeu. 



edge of the bit, but for the finest work, the closer to the 
edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken, the finer 
the work that may be done. No wood used upon ordinary 
work is so cross-gramed or knurly that it cannot be 
smoothed economically, if a properly sharpened and ad- 
justed plane is used. 



84 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig. 56. — Knuckle Joint Block Plane. 



(B.) A smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly 
the entire width of the bit as possible, therefore a very flat, 
elliptically shaped edge must be maintained. In using a 

plane or any kind of 
cutting tool, the di- 
rection of the grain 
of the wood should 
be carefully studied, 
and every advantage 
taken of it to facili- 
tate the work. 

44. The block 
plane (knuckle joint 
cap, Fig. 56) (A.) is constructed upon a somewhat different 
principle than the planes above described, as the adjusting 
nut (a) under the cutter at the rear end of the plane is 
raised or lowered to with- 
draw or advance the bit, 
and thus govern the cut of 
the tool. The size of the 
mouth is controlled by a 
movable section of the face 
at b. This plane has no 
cap iron, as the use for 
which it is intended makes 
it unnecessary. The block 
plane is used across the 
end of the wood, at right 
angles with the general direction of the grain. The iron, 
or cutter, is so placed in the stock of the plane that its 
cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut as possible, 




Fig. 57. — Use of the Block Plane. 
(For explanation, see text.) 



TOOLS 



85 



with the beveled side of the iron uppermost. By this 
method of construction, the iron is given more stiffness to 
resist the chatter, or vibration, caused by planing end wood. 

(B.) In using the block plane, do not make the cuts 
from edge to edge, 
or chips will be 
broken off at the cor- 
ners ; instead, plane 
from each edge, and 
stop the stroke be- 
fore the other edge 
is reached ; reverse 
the plane and work 
from the other direc- 
tion, as shown at A, 
B, Fig. 57. An- 
other and workman- 
like way of using 
the block plane upon 
small pieces is shown 
in Fig. 58. Work 
from each edge as de- 
scribed above, turn- 
ing the piece over 

for each stroke. In sharpening the block plane iron, 
the edge should be made slightly elliptical, and the bevel 
carefully maintained. 

45. The correct position. — (A.) In using planes or 
any edge tools, a position should be taken which will 
furnish sufficient resistance to the pressure required for 
making the cutj as the pressure should be applied firmly 




Fig. 58.- 



Using Block Plane upon Small 
Pieces. 



86 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

and steadily. With experience, the correct position will 
be taken involuntarily, but the beginner should be con- 
tinually upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness. 

(B.) The habit of bending from the hips is acquired 
easily, and the young workman should learn to work in as 
nearly an erect position as possible, for if the bending of 
the shoulders is persisted in, a permanent stoop will re- 
sult. Stand facing the work and clear of the bench in 
order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing. 

(C.) Do not allow the 
SX^ ^ ^^ plane to drop over the 




end of the board at either 
the beginning or the end 

Fig. 59.-INCORRECT Use of Jack ^^ ^^^ ^im\^^ aS indicated 

at A , 5, Fig. 59. To pre- 
vent this, the hand should be kept upon that part of 
the plane which is upon the board ; at the beginning of 
the stroke, the weight should be upon the front end of the 
plane, as in Fig. 60, and at the end of the stroke upon the 
rear end, or upon the handle, as in Fig. 61. Begin and end 
each stroke with a lifting motion instead of allowing the 
plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood. The plane 
should be held firmly, not rigidly ; do not allow it to jump ; 
this is caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving 
heavier than the plane should cut, or, if the cap iron is 
fitted and adjusted properly, by a dull iron. A cutter will 
jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly against the frog. 
In drawing the plane back after making a stroke, carry it 
upon the toe, or upon one corner ; do not drag it flat 
upon its face, as the iron is thereby dulled as much as 
when it is cutting, or possibly more. 



T(X)T.S 



87 




Fig. go. — Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane. 




Fkj. (Jl. — Kni)IN(; the Stkokk wiimi a .Jack Plane. 



88 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

(D.) Carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is 
possible, and take no more shavings off than is necessary 
to attain the desired results. The young workman should 
make a study of the grain and the peculiarities of the 
different kinds of lumber upon which he works, losing no 
opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities 
of every available wood. 

(E.) In using edge tools of every kind, little is gained, 
and much is often lost, by working with dull tools ; tools 
should be sharpened often and thoroughly. This is of the 
utrnost importance, for even with the tools in the best 
possible order, it will require much care and skill to do 
good work. 

46. Chisels. — (A.) Carpenters' chisels are used for 
paring and mortising ; the paring chisel should be light, 
smoothly finished, and ground with a sharper bevel than 
that used for mortising, for which the heaviest chisel is 
none too strong. 

(B.) Chisels are " tanged " or '' socket," according 
to the method by which the blade and handle is joined. 
The tanged firmer chisel (Fig. 62, A) is the older form, and 
is not so strong as the more recently designed socket chisel 
(B). For light work, the tanged chisel is preferred by 
many, but more commonly the socket chisel is used, as it 
is stiffer, not so easily broken, and has no shoulder to 
catch upon the edge of the wood when the tool is used. 
The beveled-edge chisel (C) is a favorite tool with pat- 
tern makers ; and the mortise, or framing chisel (D), is de- 
signed for heavy use. A set of chisels consists of one each 
of the following dimensions : J", ¥', ¥', ¥\ ¥', ¥\ V\ 

1 // 11// -lUf 13// o/' 



TOOLS 



89 



(C.) A large, heavy chisel, 3^ or 4'' in width, called 
a ''slice" or ''slick," is used, like a paring chisel, upon 
heavy work. 

(D.) Handles for paring chisels may be of any hard 
wood and of any convenient shape, as these should not be 
pounded upon. Although they 
are occasionally used for cutting 
small mortises, it is not a good 
practice unless the tops of the 
handles are protected by leather 
or fiber tops. Mortising chisels 
should have handles of the tough- 
est wood obtainable, preferably 
hickory, with leather nailed with 
small brads upon the top to pro- 
tect the wood. If a leather 
washer is fastened to the handle 
by a pin or dowel, the wood will 
in time pound down and the 
leather be broken out and de- 
stroyed, while if bradded upon 
the handle, the leather may be renewed as often as neces- 
sary. An iron ring, or ferrule, is used by many to prevent 
the handle from splitting, but this will bruise the face of the 
mallet. A hammer should never be used upon any sort 
of wooden handle, or the handle will be very quickly de- 
stroyed, but a mallet will injure it comparatively little. 
In fitting the handle to the chisel blade, care should be 
used that they are in perfect alignment, as otherwise a 
sharp blow may break the blade. 

(E.) In sharpening a mortise chisel, it should be ground 




:^iG. 62. — Chisels. 

.4, tanged firmer chisel; B, socket 
chisel; C, beveled-edge chisel; D, 
mortise, or framing chisel. 



90 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig. 63. — Drawshave. 



at an angle of not less than 30°, as a thinner edge would be 
apt to break upon coming in contact with a knot. A 

paring chisel may be ground as 
thin as 20°, as it does not have 
to stand heavy blows, and a bet- 
ter edge for the purpose may 
thus be obtained. In whetting a 
chisel, the bevel must be care- 
fully maintained, and the back kept perfectly straight, 
like the face of a plane iron, or it will be impossible to 
work to a line. 

47. Gouges may in general be dfiscribed in the same way 
as chisels, except that they are curved instead of flat. 
The terms ''inside" and '' outside," used in -describing 
them, indicate whether they are ground upon the inside 
or the outside of the curve. 

48. The drawshave (Fig. 63) is often used in cutting 
curves, in chamfering, and for roughing out work. The 
patent drawshave, with folding handles, is a safer tool to 
keep in the tool box, as the edge is protected, but it is not 
as satisfactory for general work as the ordinary rigid- 
handled tool. If the latter is used, a piece of wood should 
be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands 
when the tool is not in use. 

49. The spokeshave (Fig. 64) 
should not be used in any place 
where a plane can be used, but 
only upon concave or convex 

surfaces ; when used, it maybe either pushed or pulled. 

50. Bits (A.) are of many different types, the most com- 
mon being the auger bit (Fig, 65) . The use of the " worm " 



Fig. 64. — Spokeshave. 



TOOLS 



91 



Fig. 65. — Auger Bit. 



(a) is to draw the bit into the wood, thus making a heavy 
pressure upon the bit unnecessary. The ''Ups" (bb) 
make an incision on the ^«s; 
wood below the cut made '^k^ 
by the '' cutters " (cc), which ^ 
take the shavings out and 
into the 'Hwist," which in turn Hfts them out of the hole. 
(B.) Care should be used when boring a deep hole that 
the bit is removed before the shavings clog in the twist, 
which will happen if the hole becomes full of shavings 
which cannot be lifted out. Should clogging occur, do 
not use a great deal of strength in trying to back the bit 
out, or its ''shank" may be twisted off ; it is better to pull 
it out with a straight pull by means of a lever, if suffi- 
cient strength cannot be otherwise exerted, the pull being 
straight over the center of the bit from the " chuck," not 

from the head of the bitbrace. 
After boring the hole to 
the desired depth, do not 
turn the bit backward to 
remove it, as shavings will 
be left in the hole, but give ' 
it one turn back to loosen the 
worm, then turn as though 
boring the hole deeper, lift- 
ing under the head of the 
bitbrace in the meantime, 
T^ rr r^ » ^Y whlch proccss the shav- 

llG. 66. rROSS-HANDLED AuGER. ' 

ings will be lifted out. These 
bits are numbered from ^^.ths to {fths inch by 16ths of 
an inch. Sizes larger than these are known as augers. 



92 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



(C.) Large auger bits generally are fitted with cross 

handles, as in Fig. 66, as a bitbrace will not give sufficient 
leverage to make the bit cut the wood ; these 
are called augers. The form shown is known 
as a '' Ford auger." 

(D.) The German hit (Fig. 67, A) is used for 
boring small holes for screws and nails, and 
has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our fore- 
fathers, as its action is much more rapid. Its 
progression in sizes is from ^q" to \l" by 32ds 
of an inch ; this tool is also called a screw hit. 
(E.) The twist drill (Fig. 67, B) is a valu- 
able tool ; every carpenter should own an 
assortment of twist drills for use in places 
where other bits may come in 
contact with iron. The sizes 
range from ^V'' to |'' by 32ds. 

The round shank drill may be purchased 

in any size up to 3", by 64ths of an inch. 
(F.) The extension hit (Fig. 68, A) is a 

very convenient tool for boring a hole of 

any size within certain limits, and is at 

times extremely valuable. 

(G.) The center hit (Fig. 68, B) is often 

used in boring holes through thin material 

which would be apt to be split if an auger 

bit were used. 

(H.) In filing an auger bit, it should be 

held as shown in Fig. 69, and a small, fine 

file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of the 

cutters ; in no case should the outside of the lips be sharp- 



FiG. 67. 

A, German bit; 
B, twist drill. 




Fig. 68. 

A, extension bit 
B, center bit. 



TOOLS 



93 



ened, as the size of the hit will be reduced. In filing the 
cutter, be sure that its under side back of the cutting 
edge is filed enough 
to clear the wood 
after the cutter has 
entered it. 

In doing this, it 
should be remembered 
that the bit pro- 
gresses into the wood 
as it cuts, and unless 
the under side of the 
cutter is filed prop- 
erly, it will bear upon 
the w^ood beneath it, 
back of the cutting 
edge, and prevent the 
bit from advancing. 
To remedy this, be 
sure that the cutter 

is kept filed thin, and that the under side is straight from 
the edge to the beginning of the twist. 

(I.) If the lips (Fig. 65, hh) are filed off, an auger bit 
bores into the end wood easily. 

51. The bitbrace, or stock. — (A.) This tool is used 
to hold the bit, and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn 
the bit into the wood. Bitbraces are made of different 
sizes, and with different devices for holding the ^ Hangs" of 
the bits. A workman should own an 8^' and a 10'' swing 
bitbrace, as it is often necessary to use different sizes or 
kinds of bits alternately. 




Filing an Auger Bit. 




94 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

(B.) The ratchet bitbrace (Fig. 70) differs from the 
ordinary brace only in the ratchet attachment. It is an 
indispensable tool to an up-to-date workman, as it may 

be used in many places 
where an ordinary brace 
would be useless ; for gen- 
eral work, however, being 
heavier, it is less conven- 
ient than the plain brace. 

Fig. 70. -Ratchet Bitbrace.'^ ^ 52. The SCrewdrlver (A.) 

is one of the most important 
tools in a carpenter's kit, and to be of use should be of 
finely tempered steel, for if too soft, it will turn over, and 
if too hard, it will break. The edge should be as thick 
as the slot of a screw will allow, in order to have as much 
strength as possible. 

(B.) A round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory 
as one with an elliptical or polygonal handle, as it is im- 
possible to obtain as good a grip upon the former as upon 
the latter; a round handle, planed flat upon the two 
opposite sides, is quite commonly used. 

(C.) Ratchet screwdrivers are useful in many places where 
it is difficult to use two hands, and there are patent 
quick-action screwdrivers on the market which are suitable 
only for certain kinds of light .work, as what is gained in 
speed is lost in power. The screwdriver bit is a short 
screwdriver blade, tanged to fit a bitbrace; it is essen- 
tial in doing economical work, as screws may be driven 
nmch more rapidly than by hand, and it is also valu- 
able on account of its. greater leverage in driving heavy 
screws. 



TOOLS 



95 




Fig. 71. 
Compasses. 



Fig. 72. 
Calipers. 



53. Compasses, or dividers (Fig. 71), are used to draw 
circles and curves, and for sjmcing and scribing, by which is 
meant the process of fitting 
a piece of wood to an uneven 
surface. Calipers (Fig. 72) 
are used to measure the out- 
side of a round or oval 
object. Those shown are 
known as " outside " cali- 
pers ; " inside " calipers, or 
those used for measuring the 
inside of a hole, have straight 
legs. These tools ordinarily 
are not considered a part of 
a carpenter's kit, as they are generally used upon work 
requiring more exact measurements. Wood-workers' tools 
are graded to sizes, generally nothing finer than 16ths of 

an inch ; hence, the ordinary 
methods of measuring will 
usually give sufficiently accu- 
rate results. 

54. Pliers. — (A.) These are 
indispensable little tools (Fig. 
73), and every workman 
should own a pair. Those 
combining several tools are 
most useful ; cheap tools of 
this sort are usually worthless. 
(B.) Nippers (Fig. 74) are 
made to cut wire, but not to pull nails. Being tempered 
for cutting, those of good quality are hard and brittle, 




Fig. 73. 
Pliers. 



Fig. 74. 
Nippers. 



96 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails, for which 
work a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased. 

55. The scraper is one of the most useful tools in the 
kit of the carpenter who works upon hard wood. This 
tool may be purchased, or made of a very hard saw ; it 

must be of hard, tough 
steel, or the edge will not 
last. A scraper should 
be about 3'' x 5'', which 
is a convenient size for 
grasping with the hand. 
Many workmen make 
handles for their scrap- 
ers (Fig. 75, A and B), 
but cabinet makers, and 
others who use them con- 
tinually, generally prefer 
to use them without 
handles. If a large sur- 
face is to be scraped, it 
is well to have a handle 
of a leather palm (Fig. 
75, C). This is a piece of leather of suitable size and 
shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the 
action of the scraper in cutting ; the thumb is passed 
through the hole, and the broad part of the palm hangs 
between the scraper and the thick of the hand. For scrap- 
ing floors, a scraper plane (Fig. 75, D) will be found val- 
uable, though if much of this work is to be done, it will be 
the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor- 
gcrapmg maclinies. 




Fig. 



Scraper. 



A, B, handles for scraper; C, leather palm; 
D, scraper plane. 



TOOLS 



97 



Fig. ,76. — 
Edges of 
Scrapers. 

A , beveled 
edge; B, s(juare 
edge. 



56. Edges. — There are two forms of edges used in 
sharpening scrapers, — the square and the beveled edge; 
in sharpening either of these, the edge should be filed, 
whetted, and turned with a burnisher, which 
imparts a wire edge, indicated in Fig. 76, A 
and B, which shows enlarged views of the two 
forms of edges of scrapers. If the eye glances 
along the edge of a properly sharpened 
scraper, the edge will appear slightly curved ; 
this edge must be given it by filing. After 
the scraper is filed, each corner which is to 
be turned must be whetted to a perfectly 
keen edge upon an oilstone, as the object of 
sharpening a scraper is to '^ turn " this edge at an angle 
with the sides of the scraper. 

By " turning " the edge of a scraper is meant pushing 
the particles of steel which form the corner over so that 
they will form a wire edge which will stand at an angle with 
the sides of the scraper. When the edge has been skillfully 
turned, it will cut like a very finely sharpened 
and adjusted plane, and will work either with 
or against the grain without tearing the wood. 
Notice carefully the angle of the burnisher 
with the sides of the scraper, as at a, Fig. 77, 
and as in Fig. 78, which indicates approxi- 
mately the angle at which it should be held 
across the edge when seen in the view illus- 
trated of either a square or beveled-edge 
scraper, the vertical lines indicating the scraper. The 
stroke must be from the bottom, up, as indicated. At A, 
Fig. 79, is shown the top view of the burnisher as it makes 
king's woodwork — 7 




Fig. 77. — An- 
gle OF Bur- 
nisher WITH 
Sides of 

Scraper. 



98 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



each of the strokes in turning the edge of a square edge 
scraper; notice that the burnisher swings in an angle of 
about 15°, one stroke only being made at each angle. 

At B, Fig. 79, is shown the method of turning the edge 
of a bevel edge scraper ; the student will notice that the 

angles are similar to 
those shown at A, 
except that the first 
stroke is made at 
nearly the same angle 
as the bevel of the 
scraper. An edge 
may often be turned 
at one stroke, and 
more than three 
should rarely be nec- 
essary. If more than 
three are made, the 
edge may be turned 
too far, which is 
worse than not being 
turned enough. The 
strokes should be 
made in the order 
indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher; 
otherwise it will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results. 
The amount of pressure necessary to apply at this 
stage of the work cannot be described, but can only be 
discovered by practice. A steady, moderate pressure is 
all that is needed, but care should be used that the angle 
of the burnisher does not change during the stroke. This 




Fig. 78. 



Method of Grasping Scraper 
FOR Sharpening. 




TOOLS 99 

will give an edge suitable for common counter or table 
tops, hardwood floors, and similar work, if the skill to use 
the burnisher properly has been acquired. 

The burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil 
or with the end of the tongue, as this assists it to slide over 
the edge of the scraper without scratching. 

If a scraper is to be used upon very fine work, a different 
shaped edge should be made; it should be whetted to four 
perfectly square and keen corners, 
each of which will furnish an edge. 
This is a more difficult method of 
sharpening a scraper, but it gives 
four edges suitable for fine work. --^^:::^^^^^7^ 
The edge should be turned by carry- fig. 79. — Top Views of 
ino; the burnisher as shown at A , Fig. ™^ Angles of the 

'^ . Burnisher. 

79, making the strokes at the differ- 
ent angles in the order indicated by the numbers. In sharp- 
ening any scraper, care should be used that no strokes 
arc made back of the square, as stroke be of Fig. 80. 
Keep the burnisher pointing down all the time, as indi- 
cated at a, Fig. 77, as in this lies the chief difficulty. Two 
or three strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper. 
To turn the edge of a scraper properly, a burnisher is 
necessary. This tool should be made of the hardest steel, 
and is often made by the workman himself of an old file, 
ground perfectly smooth and polished. Perhaps the most 
satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of the wood-worker 
may be made from a nail set, which may be fitted to a 
handle and ground to an awl point. The back of a nar- 
row chisel or gouge may be used, though these are rather 
clumsy. The burnishers found in stores arc generally 



100 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig. 80. — Angle 
TO BE Avoided 
IN Sharpening 
Scraper. 



unsatisfactory, as they are apt to be soft, and any steel 
which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher for 
sharpening scrapers, as the scraper will cut 
into it, instead of turning over. 

If satisfactory results are not obtained, 
there may be several causes : the scraper 
may not be of just the right temper or tex- 
ture ; the burnisher may be soft or rough ; 
the edge may not have been turned over 
evenly, or it may have been turned over 
too far, as indicated in an exaggerated way 
at a. Fig. 80, which is the result of carrying 
the burnisher around too far, as shown by 
the line be. This may be remedied by using the awl point 
as shown at d, Fig. 81, holding the scraper and burnisher 
in about the same relative positions as indicated, guiding 
the burnisher by the thumb, which should be carried on 
the square edge of the scraper, moving with the burnisher 
its entire length. In this way the edge may be turned 
back to its correct angle, when a very light touch in the 
usual way will generally make the desired edge. 
If either the scraper or the burnisher is not 
of the right texture, throw it away, as it is 
worthless. If the burnisher is rough, it may 
be made smooth upon an oilstone. If the edge 
of the scraper is rough, it may be turned back 
again by laying the scraper flat upon the 
bench, the rough side up, and the burnisher 
passed over it several times ; then proceed as 
with a new edge. In general, this is not so satisfactory 
as it is to file, whet, and sharpen the edge all over 




Front Ui'eu/- 

Fig. 81. — 
Turning 
Back the 
Edge of a 
Scraper. 



TOOLS 



101 




Fig. 82. — Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a 
Broad Surface. 




Fig. 83. — Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within 
a Small Area. 



102 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



again, especially if the corner has been turned several 

times. 

Though it may seem from the above explanation of the 

methods of sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex 

operation, it will be 
seen that it is not a 
difficult matter, if it 
is once worked out ; 
usually it requires a 
little time and prac- 
tice to acquire the 
knack that will make 
it possible to do it 
surely and well. 

In using a scraper, 
it may be grasped as 
shown in Figs. 82, 83, 
84, as best suits the 
work being done, and 
the strokes should be 
with the grain. In 

Fig. 84. — Method of Grasping Scraper . 

WHEN Working upon an Edge. USmg thlS tool, aS m 

the use of most others, 
the easiest way generally is the most efficient. As the 
young workman gains experience, he will gradually acquire 
the correct methods to use his tools for all the various 
purposes within their scope. 

57. Nail sets are for the purpose of ^'setting" the nails, 
or for sinking them below the surface of the wood ; and to 
stand the hard usage to which they are subjected, they 
must be very carefully tempered. The best form of nail 




TOOLS 



103 



set is that which has a cupped or hollow point, as it is not 
so apt to slip off of the head of the nail. 

58. Wrenches are of many kinds and patterns and of 
every conceival^le use, but 
that known as the " mon- 




FiG. 85. — Monkey Wrench. 



key," or '' Coe's," wrench 

(Fig. 85) is perhaps the most 

convenient for general work 

and has not been supplanted by any of more recent 

invention. 

59. Handscrews (A.), if of good material and well made, 
will stand any legitimate use, and if properly used and 
cared for, will last a lifetime. However, a novice or a 
careless workman often destroys them rapidly by allowing 
the jaws to be under strain while in the position shown in 

Fig. 86, which 
will probably 
break the middle 
screw, and per- 
haps both. 

(B.) In using 
handscrews for 
gluing, the jaws 
should be set to 
nearly the size 
of the material 
which is to be 
placed between 
them, before the glue is spread. In placing the hand- 
screws upon the work, the outside screw should be turned 
back so that it will not prevent the jaws from being 




e dcrcur 



Fig. 



8G. — Effect of the Unskillful, Use of a 
Handscuew. 



104 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 






^Jr^ 



S;:^^Mur 







slightly closer at the outside screw than at the points. 
This will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the 
outside screw, to bring the jaws parallel, which is the only 
position in which handscrews should be allowed to remain. 

In opening or clos- 
ing a handscrew, the 
middle screw should 
be held in the left 
hand, and the outside 
screw in the right, 
as in Fig. 87; the 
screws should then be 
grasped so that they 
will not turn in the 
hand and the hand- 
screw revolved in 
the desired direction. 
Never put unneces- 
sary strain upon 
handscrews, nor leave 
them with a heavy 
strain upon them for a very long time. 

If the work is well fitted, no more strain should be used 
than is necessary to bring the joints well up, and no work 
should be glued unless the joints fit well. In any case, 
the outside screw should be turned back a quarter or a half 
a turn after the glue has set ; this will relieve the strain, 
and add much to the life of the handscrew. 

In gluing work which requires several handscrews to 
hold it while the glue is setting, the handles of the outside 
screws all should point one way, which allows the work to 




Fig. 87. — Correct Use of Handscrew. 



TOOLS 105 

be handled much more easily, as the handles of the middle 
screws will form an even bearing upon the floor. If this 
is not done, the outside screws will be apt to be broken 
when a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled, 
as the weight of the work will rest upon the screws which 
bear upon the floor. 

(C.) Before using new handscrews, the screws should be 
treated with beeswax and beef tallow, or with black lead 
mixed with oil or with wax The latter compound is very 
dirty ; the former lubricates the screws perfectly. The 
screws should be heated, and the lubricant applied hot. 

60. (A.) A grindstone of good quality, from 20'' to 26" 
in diameter, is indispensable to a woodworking shop, and 
should be used frequently, as the efficiency of cutting tools 
is much increased if they are kept well ground, and much 
time may be saved in whetting them. 

(B.) In selecting a grindstone, be sure that it is true 
and round, and of a coarse, even grit, which can be quite 
satisfactorily determined by examining several and select- 
ing the coarsest, as that will doubtlessly be a fast cutting 
stone. 

(C.) The stone should be carefully centered and 
mounted upon a frame ; the face may be kept true by 
means of a file or other hard steel being held against it 
as it revolves, or a piece of \" or f gas pipe revolved from 
side to side of the stone as it is turned. Never allow a 
stone to rest with one side in the water, as it will be made 
softer and heavier upon that side, and soon worn out of 
true. 

(D.) Do not use one place upon the surface of the stone 
continually, or a groove will quickly be worn there ; in- 




106 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

stead, keep the tool moving from side to side. If properly 
cared for, a stone will hold its face indefinitely. 

6i. Emery, corundum, carborundum, and other artificial 
abrasiv.e wheels have in many cases supplanted the grind- 
stone, as they cut much more rapidly. Any one not 
accustomed to using them, must be careful that the temper 
of the tool is not destroyed, as the wheel runs at a high 

rate of speed, and a tool in 
unskillful hands is easily 
burned. To avoid this, the 
tool should be held lightly 

Fig. 88. — Emery Wheel Dresser. i r- i • i 

but nrmly agamst the stone, 
and frequently dipped in water to cool it. If an emery 
wheel burns badly, it may be because it needs dressing ; 
for this purpose a diamond emery wheel dresser is the 
best, but on account of its cost, various devices have 
been patented to accomplish the same result, one of which 
is illustrated in Fig. 88. 

62. Whetstones. — (A.) These are used to give to a tool 
the keen edge necessary to cut wood smoothly. The 
natural stone in most common use is the '^Washita stone,'' 
which is quarried in the Ozark Mountains, and is thought 
by many to be the best natural stone for the general use 
of the wood-worker; it is fast cutting, and when of the 
best quality is of even texture. 

(B.) Many workmen prefer an ''Arkansas stone," as it is 
finer and harder than the Washita. It is also more ex- 
pensive, however, and is better adapted to the use of 
woodcarvers and engravers than to the use of wood-workers 
in general. It is usually not so fast cutting as the best of 
the Washita stones, but a finer edge may be obtained by 



TOOLS 107 

its use. There are other natural stones, but none so 
generally used as the above. The purchase of a natural 
stone is to a great extent a lottery, as only about one 
stone in ten has a perfectly even texture, is free from 
cracks, and has reasonably good cutting qualities. 

(C.) If a stone needs truing, lay a piece of coarse sand- 
paper upon a board, and rub the stone over it until it has 
been ground down. The best place, however, to true up 
a whetstone is upon the horizontal stone of a marble 
worker ; this is a large grindstone, several feet in diam- 
eter, mounted on a vertical shaft, upon which are placed 
pieces of marble to be ground to a flat surface. 

(D.) Artificial oilstones, made of emery, corundum, 
carborundum, and other artificial abrasives, are coming 
rapidly into use, and, as in the case of grindstones, even- 
tually will supplant all others in many occupations, as 
they cut faster than any natural stone, may be made of 
any degree of fineness, and are of absolutely even texture. 
They are also able to resist many accidents which would 
destroy a natural stone. 

(E.) Slip stones are used to sharpen gouges and curved 
tools of all kinds, and may be made in any desirable shape. 
An oblong stone, 8'' x 2'' x V, is the size of stone in most 
general use by the wood-worker, and should be fitted into 
a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it clean. It 
may be laid either flat or on its edge, as suits the workman, 
though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set 
on its edge. 

(F.) The use of the oilstone is described under topic 
40, A. The oil used should be a kind that will not gum ; 
its purpose is to prevent the glassiness which is caused by 



108 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

the friction of the tool over the stone. Common machine 
oil is used by many, lard oil by others, and kerosene, or 
coal oil, is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil 
suitable for use upon an oilstone. Any one of these oils 
will give satisfactory results, but kerosene keeps the stone 
cleaner, thereby adding to its efficiency, and for this pur- 
pose lubricates quite as well as any of those above-men- 
tioned. 

63. (A.) Files are used for many purposes by wood- 
workers. An assortment consisting of 4'' and 6'' slim taper, 
or three-cornered, files; 8^' and 10'' flat, or bastard, files ; 
8'', 10'', and 12'' round files; and 8" and 12" half round wood 
files and rasps should be in every carpenter's kit. The 
4" slim taper files should be used upon the finer saws, and 
the 6" upon the coarser ones, though the latter are used 
by some workmen for both saws. Upon jobbing work, it 
is necessary to have a few warding and knife files to use 
upon keys and odd jobs, and also to sharpen bits. 

Files and rasps are made of every shape and size, and 
for every purpose. Wood files usually are tempered to 
stand lead or soft brass, and should never be used upon 
anything harder. 

In drawing a file back between the cuts, do not allow 
it to drag, as it is injured thereby about as much as when 
it is cutting. 

(B.) There are a great many other tools and appliances 
used by the wood-worker with which the workman should 
be familiar, but it is not necessary to describe them, 
as the above-mentioned are the most essential tcols 
common to all forms of woodworking. There is no im- 
portant principle involved in the construction, care, and 



TOOLS 109 

use of woodworking tools which is not discussed in this 
chapter, and the student who becomes thoroughly familiar 
with the matter treated will have little trouble in learn- 
ing to handle other tools. 

64. Saw filing. — (A.) This is an accomplishment 
which every young wood-worker should master, as its 




Fig. 89. — Jointing a Saw. 

possession will save expense and inconvenience, and add 
much to his efficiency as a workman. 

(B.) The first step in sharpening a saw is to examine 
the edge carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length ; 
if they are not, they should be jointed. This is done by 
using a flat file held perfectly square in a block, as shown in 
Fig. 89. One or two light strokes usually will be enough 
to make all the teeth of the same length. The edge of 
the saw should round slightly in the middle, say about 
y for a 24'' or a 26'' saw. If the edge is perfectly straight, 
it should not be jointed to this shape at once, but a little 
at each time for several filings. 



no 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 




Fig. 90. — Hand Saw Set. 



(C.) After jointing the saw, be sure that it is properly 
set. This may be done by a saw set, of which there are 
several patterns in use; these are all of two types, the 

hcind set (Fig. 90), and the 
cnvU set (Fig. 91). Either of 
these forms is efficient, but 
as it is more convenient, the 
hand set is more commonly 
used. Do not give the saw 
too much set, or it will not 
cut smoothly, but will break the wood badly on the back 
side of the cut ; there is also greater danger of breaking 
the teeth, and as more wood is cut out, more muscle must 
be applied. The point of the teeth only should be set, 
and care should be used that the blade of the saw is not 
sprung, which will be apt to result from setting the teeth 
too far from the point. 

A saw to be used upon green lumber should have 
coarser teeth and more set than one which is to be used 
upon thoroughly dry, seasoned wood. A panel saw in- 
tended for use upon fine finishing work 
usually is ground so thin upon the 
back that it needs little or no set. 
Some workmen set a saw so heavily 
that it will do for several . filings ; 
while this is satisfactory for a soft saw 
to be used upon common work, it is not 
a good plan to treat a fine, hard saw 
this way, though the latter may be touched up once or twice. 
(D.) In filing, it is important that the file should be 
carried at the same angle the entire length of both sides 




Fig. 91. — AisrviL Saw 
Set. 



TOOLS 



111 




Fig. 92. — Angle of the File 
WITH THE Edge of the 
Saw. 



of the blade. For a cuttiiig-off saw, the file should be 

carried at an angle with the side of the blade of from 60° 

for soft wood to 70° for hard wood, as shown in Fig. 92 ; 

and for general w^ork, at an angle 

about halfway between the tw^o. 

The file may be carried horizon- 
tally, as at aa, Fig. 93, which 

makes all the teeth of the same 

size ; as at A, Fig. 94; or it may be 

carried as at bb, Fig. 93, which will 

make the teeth of the shape shown 

at B, Fig. 94. The latter method 

is preferred by many workmen, as 

it allows the file to run more smoothly, thus lengthening 

its life a little. There is no difference in the efficiency of 

the saws filed by these methods, but if filed as at bb, Fig. 

93, it is more difficult to keep the teeth of the same size, 

and to make a good-looking job. 

In filing a cutting-ofT saw, the top of the file should be 

held more or less slantingly, as shown in Fig. 95, according 
to the hook which it is desired that 
the teeth shall have. The more 
hook a saw has, the faster it will 
cut, but the cut will be rougher in 
proportion. Experience is necessary 
to discover just the right angles at 
which the file should be held ; after 
considerable practice, the file will 

naturally drop into the correct position. 

File every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect 

point, one half of the filing being done from each side ; file 




Fig. 93. — Angle of the 
File with the Sides 
of the Saw. 



112 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



AVVVWW 



B 

Fig. 94. — Results of 
Filings as at aa and 
hh. Fig. 93. 



the entire length from one side, then reverse the saw and 
file from the other side. This cannot always be the exclu- 
sive practice if a saw is in very bad shape, because if the 
teeth are of uneven sizes, care must 
be used, and more filed from some 
teeth than from others. It may, in 
such a case, be necessary to go over 
the saw two or three times, but it 
should *be done very carefully, so that 
the bevel of the teeth may be pre- 
served and their length kept the same. Observe each 
tooth, and press toward the point or the handle of the 
saw, as may be necessary. The file should be carried 
with its point toward the point of the saw, filing the cut- 
ting or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of 
the saw, and the back of the tooth next ahead on the 
nearer side with the same stroke. If the point of the saw 
is carried toward the handle of the saw, it makes the teeth 
chatter, and upon a hard saw, may make them break. It 
also causes an excruciating noise, and shortens the life 
of a file, as the continuous 
chatter against its teeth 
will soon break them, and 
destroy the file. 

A ripsaw requires more 
set than a cutting-off saw, 
and if, as usual, the file 

is carried square with the blade both ways, the saw may 
be filed from one side. 

After a saw is filed, it should be laid upon a perfectly 
flat surface, and given a light touch with a flat file or a 




Fig. 95. — Method of Carrying a File 
TO obtain the Hook of a Cutting- 
off Saw. 



TOOLS 113 

whetstone, to remove the burr caused by the file, as in 
Fig. 96. 

The teeth of the compass saw should be a combination 
of the rip- and the cutting-off saw, as it does the work of 
both as occasion requires. The teeth should be nearly 
as hooking as those of a ripsaw, and the front teeth filed 




Fig. 96. — Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw. 

at an angle of about 80° with the side of the saw. In 
filing the back of the teeth, the hand should be carried a 
little lower than horizontal. Figure 41, C, shows three 
views of the teeth of a compass saw. 

Suggestive Exercises 

27. What should be the quality of all mechanics' tools? Is a 
good, serviceable tool always finely finished ? Are tools made espe- 
cially for some dealer always reliable ? What is the safest method to 
follow in buying tools ? How may the efficiency of a tool be known ? 

28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise. 

29. Describe the rule in common use. 

king's woodwork — 8 



114 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

30. For what is the try-square used ? Why should special care be 
used in purchasing one? How may a square be tested? 

31. Compare the steel square and the try-square. 

32. Describe the bevel and its use. 

33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the 
gauge be depended upon in setting it ? What special form of gauge is 
useful ? 

34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly 
tempered ? Why is the eye shaped as it is ? How is the handle fast- 
ened to the head ? Describe thp wood necessary for a hammer handle. 
How should a hammer be hung ? How should nails be driven so that 
they will hold the l^est ? What should be guarded against in driving 
up ceiling or matched boards ? How and wh}^ should nail heads be 
sunk below the joint surface? 

35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two w^ays of sharpening 
a hatchet. 

36. What is the principal use of a mallet ? Describe and compare 
two forms of mallets. 

37. What are the two parts of a saw ? Describe the use of a ripsaw. 
After what tool is it modeled ? After what tool are the teeth of a 
cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of 
both ? For what is it used ? Why is it made of softer metal than are 
other saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the 
backsaw. How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung ? What 
kind of saw is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the 
back of a saw compare with its cutting edge ? What is gained by this ? 
What test should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand ? What 
are the best sizes for saws ? Compare the practical features of a hard 
and a medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much 
force should be used upon a saw ? How do some workmen change the 
handles of their saws to make the saws run more easily ? 

38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why 
is the form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for 
whittling than the form used by the wood- worker ? 

39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe 
the mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should be 



TOOLS 115 

the condition of tho face of a plane ? How should a plane be hekl so 
tliat one may see the ailjustnient of the cutter? 

40. Of what use is the cap iron in j^rinding a plane l)it ? How may 
a grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly ? Upon which side 
of the bit should all the grinding l)e done ? At what angle should it be 
ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where 
should the cap iron be while whetting ? How should the bevel of the 
bit be held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm 
while whetting. How should the whetstone be pre\'ented from wear- 
ing unevenly? What motion should l)e avoided in whetting? What 
is the correct shape of the edge of a plane iron ? What is the use of the 
cap iron ? What is apt to result if the cap iron is too thick ? 

41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way 
does the edge of its iron differ from that of other planes ? 

42. What plane is used for straightening edges and. surfaces ? What 
should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane ? How should 
a plane be carried to joint an edge square? 

43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be 
the position. of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How 
should edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain ? 

44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with 
the above planes. 

45. Wliat position should be taken when at work with edge tools of 
any sort ? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoul- 
ders ? What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end 
of the strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull 
tools? How should a plane be drawn back after a stroke? 

4G. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities 
and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should a 
mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle ? Why ? 
Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the paring 
and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a shce, or 
shck? 

47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and 
an outside gouge ? 

48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utility 



116 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

of the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the 
edge of a rigid-handled drawshave be protected ? 

49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave. 

50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the 
different parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clog- 
ging of a bit be prevented ? If a bit should become clogged in a hole, 
how should it be drawn out ? Describe the form and the use of a Ger- 
man bit; of a twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. De- 
scribe the method of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part 
of a bit should never be filed ? Why ? 

51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the 
ratchet brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use ? 

52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a screw- 
driver ? What should be the shape of the handle ? What is the value 
of a screwdriver bit ? 

53. Describe the use of compasses ; of calipers. 

54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use ? 
Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why? 

55. For what is a scraper used ? Wliat is the best size for a scraper ? 
Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use. 

56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for 
rough work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when 
the edge of the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is 
not sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to 
the grain? 

57. Describe the best form of nail set. 

58. What is the form of wrench in most common use ? 

59. How long ought handscrews to last ? What should be the posi- 
tion of the jaws when in use ? Which screw should be set first ? How 
should handscrews be treated to makfe them work more easily ? 

60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone ? How should 
a grindstone be trued ? 

61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be 
guarded against in the use of an emery wheel ? 

62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone ? What kind of stone is 
commonly used ? What is a finer kind of stone ? Compare the two 



TOOLS 1 1 7 

kinds. How may whetstones be trued ? ^^^lat kind of stones are com- 
ing into use? Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and 
edgeways. WTiat forms of stones are used for gouges ? What kinds of 
oils are used for oil or whetstones? 

63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files 
generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files. 

64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of 
the cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate 
the process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and 
fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be 
carried in filing a cutting-off saw ? Compare the results of carrj^ng the 
file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle with 
the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a ripsaw ? If the 
saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to bring it to a finished 
point when going over it the first time ? AMiat should be the direction 
of the point of the file while it is cutting ? Compare the set of the rip- 
saw and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare the teeth of the compass 
saw with those of others. 



CHAPTER V 
Glue and Sandpaper 

65. Different kinds of glue. — (A.) Wood-workers use 
both liquid and sheet or stick glue, but as the former 
requires little skill in its use, we will deal principally with 
the latter, which is made of hides, sinews, bones, and 
waste material of slaughterhouses. Different grades of 
glue are made of various kinds of refuse, but the processes 
of treating them all are similar. 

(B.) The material from which glue is to be made is 
steeped in lime water at low temperature, or subjected to 
a chemical treatment for a sufficient time to separate the 
fat from the fiber. The latter is then washed in clean 
water and boiled down to gelatin, which is spread upon 
wires to dry and harden, when it is ready for use. 

(C.) Ground glue makes up more readily than that 
which comes in sheets, and therefore is preferred by many 
workmen. It is frequently adulterated, but if made upon 
honor, it is as good as the glue from which it is made, and 
does not deteriorate unless kept for a long time in a damp 
place. As it is not possible to apply certain tests to ground 
glue which may be used upon that in sheets or sticks, 
many workmen prefer not to use it unless sure of its 
quality. 

(D.) The highest-priced glue is not always the best for 
all purposes, and a dealer who handles different grades can 

118 



GLUE AND SANDPAPER 119 

generally advise which should be used, though the medium 
grade in common use is usually satisfactory for general 
work. 

(E.) It is impossible to give infallible rules for testing 
glue in the stick, or to say that glue should be of any 
special color, or that it should be either transparent or 
opaque ; but, in general, glue suitable for ordinary work 
will be of a reddish, yellowish, or light brownish color, clear 
and transparent, and not offensive to either taste or smell, 
though some of the best makes of glue are absolutely 
opaque. Good glue will swell in cold water, but will not 
dissolve until it has nearly reached the boiling point. It 
will also absorb more water than will poor glue, and is 
therefore more economical. Any test which depends upon 
the brittleness or dryness of the glue is not reliable, as 
a somewhat damp, good glue will not stand this test as 
well as a poor glue that is very dry. If conditions are the 
same, and comparison is possible, it is fairly safe to assume 
that if a good glue is cut with a sharp knife, a hard, elastic 
shaving will result, while a poor glue will give a shaving 
which is extremely brittle, and will break into little pieces. 

A safe way to test glue is to prepare a number of pieces 
of the same kind of wood, V^ square and about 12'' long, 
fit them perfectly end to end in pairs, and glue as many 
of them together as there are samples of glue to be tested. 
After the glue is thoroughly hard, clamp one of the pieces 
of each pair to a bench top, wdth the joint coinciding w^ith 
the edge. Hang a pail about 10'' from the joint on the 
piece which projects over the edge of the bench, and allow 
sand to run into it slowly, until the joint breaks. Repeat 
this process with each pair which has been glued up, and 



120 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

the amount of sand necessary to break the joint will fur- 
nish a basis of comparison between the different varieties 
of glue tested. 

(F.) Glue should be soaked in cold or lukewarm water 
before being put into a glue pot, which should be a double 
vessel, with the glue in the inside pot, and the hot water or 
steam in the outer jacket. In making up glue, it should be 
brought to the boiling point until melted, and then removed 
from the heat, for if kept continually hot, it loses, much 
of its strength by being cooked too much, as this niakes 
continual thinning necessary. 

If time will not permit, the preliminary soaking may be 
dispensed with, and the hard glue put at once in the hot 
water, in which case it must be stirred frequently while 
melting, or it will form a mass. If the water boils out of 
the outside kettle, and the glue burns, throw it away, as it 
is worthless. 

Glue should be thinned with cold water, after which it 
should be allowed to become thoroughly heated before 
using ; in the shops, this is not always done, as there may 
not be time to allow the glue to become heated again; 
therefore it is quite the common custom to thin the glue 
with hot water. 

(G.) Paint brushes, or other brushes in which the 
bristles are set in glue, are not suitable for use in hot glue, 
and those made especially for this purpose should be 
purchased. For very small brushes, a strip of bass wood 
bark may be soaked and pounded about half an inch from 
the end ; these are satisfactory for small work. 

66. How to use glue. — (A.) Glue should be used as 
hot as possible, and of about the consistency of cream. 



GLUE AND SANDPAPER 121 

The pieces to be glued should be heated thoroughly and 
the gluing done in a warm room. 

(B.) In factories, where it is possible, the gluing is done 
in a specially fitted room which contains all necessary 
appliances. Vertical and horizontal coils of steam pipes 
surround the room, both to furnish heat for the room, and 
for the purpose of heating the material to be glued, which 
should be so hot that the hand cannot rest upon it for 
more than a few^ seconds. In a room of this sort, the 
temperature is maintained at from 110° to 130° F. 

.(C.) If the best possible results are wanted, a scratch 
plane should be used. This is a tool similar to a smoother, 
only its cutter is nearly vertical, and it has teeth like a 
fine saw which will scratch the wood, thus giving a better 
hold for the glue. 

(D.) It is important that all clamps, handscrews, and 
other appliances which are likely to be needed should be 
set as nearly as possible the desired size, and so arranged 
as to be reached easily, for when the glue is applied, there 
should not be the slightest hesitation or delay in getting 
the work together and the clamps on. The utmost speed 
and surety of motion is absolutely necessary in using hot 
glue ; therefore everything during the process of the 
work should be foreseen and provision made for it before 
the glue is applied, for if the glue is even slightly chilled, 
the work will not be so well done, and the efficiency of the 
glue will be greatly diminished. A novice should never 
attempt more than the simplest work, unless working with 
a competent man. 

(E.) The glue should be spread rapidly and evenly with 
a brush of suitable size, — a large one for broad surfaces 



122 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

and a small one for small work. Glue should not be 
thrown about wastefully; enough should be used to cover 
the surface completely but not thickly. 

(F.) In using handscrews, it is of the greatest impor- 
tance that the jaws be kept parallel as described in Topic 
59 ; care must be used that more strain is not placed upon 
the handscrews and clamps than is necessary to bring the 
joint together. 

(G.) Cold or liquid glue has supplanted hot glue in 
furniture repairing, gluing up intricate work, and in 
places where it is impracticable to use hot glue either 
on account of its setting too rapidly, or where heat is 
not available. Liquid glue does not hold as well nor as 
permanently as hot glue when properly used, but for many 
kinds of work it is perfectly satisfactory. 

(H.) In gluing rosev/ood, or other woods of a greasy 
nature, the glue should be thinned with vinegar, which will 
cut the grease. Another method of making glue hold on 
wood of this sort is to chalk both members of the joint 
thoroughly, and let it stand for two or three hours, when 
it should be wiped off. This absorbs the grease on the 
surface of the wood, which allows the glue to take hold. 
In all gluing, do not allow the bare hand to touch the joint 
any more than necessary, as the grease and perspiration 
will prevent the best results from being obtained. 

67. The testing of sandpaper. — (A.) Sandpaper is 
made by covering paper with a thin layer of glue, over 
which is spread evenly a layer of ground flint or glass; 
over this is spread another coating of glue, which firmly 
fastens the sand to the paper. 

(B.) In buying sandpaper, pass the finger over it to 



GLUE AND SANDPAPER 123 

see if the sand is firmly fastened. Be sure that the paper 
is neither flimsy nor brittle. Coarse particles of sand are 
sometimes found upon sandpaper which renders it worth- 
less ; these can be detected only by use, unless they are 
very j^rominent. 

68. How to use sandpaper. — (A.) Sandpaper is made 
in numbers, 00, 0, V, 1, 1^, 2, 2i, 3. Numbers 00 and 
are very fine, and are used in rubbing down shellac and 
varnish. Numbers i and 1 are used in sandpapering 
mahogany and other fancy woods, and number IJ is used 
upon all building finish but the finest ; the coarser num- 
bers are used upon floors, outside finish, and other coarse 
work which is to be painted, though for a very nice floor, 
li is used, rarely anything finer. It is a fallacy to think 
that the finer the sandpaper used, the finer the job will be, 
since upon some kinds of woods fine sandpaper will make 
a glassy surface in spots which will not take the finish like 
the rest of the work. Sandpapering is as apt to detract 
from the work as it is to improve it, for unless used very 
skillfully, the character of angles and small surfaces will be 
changed, though it may seem that the damage is so slight 
as to be imperceptible. In using sandpaper, the workman 
should guard against rounding off square corners or de- 
stroying the form of surfaces ; a raw corner, however, 
should be removed with a few light, careful strokes, as a 
perfectly sharp corner will always be more or less ragged. 

The one who knows will always notice the omissions of 
details of this sort, and will attribute such imperfections 
to lack of skill or knowledge on the part of the workman. 
It is for the one who knows, that all work should be done 
— not for the casual observer — and these apparently 



124 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



insignificant details, rather than the part of the work 
which may seem of more importance, form the basis by 
which one workman judges the work of another. In 
nothing do small things count more than in making or 
destroying a workman's reputation. 

(B.) Keep the sandpaper dry, and stored in a dry place, 
as moisture softens the glue so that the sand may be easily 




Fiei. 'Ji. - L'.sE ui- .Samdi'aper upon a Broad Surface. 

rubbed off. In handling sandpaper, care should be taken 
that the sanded sides are not rubbed together. 

(C.) In preparing to sandpaper a flat surface, or for 
general work, a sheet of sandpaper should be torn in 
halves the short way of the paper, and one half should 
be folded back to back, and held (not tacked) around the 
block with the hand, as in Fig. 97. The act of grasping 
the block for the work will hold the sandpaper, and any 
device for holding the sandpaper on the block is worthless, 
being considered by the workman as a mark of the 
novice. The block should be about 3'' x 4'' x V' and 



GLUE AND SANDPAPER 125 

may be made of wood, cork, fiber, or any material which 
suits the taste of the workman. 

If there is nmch sandpapering of moldings to be done, 
it is best to make blocks which will fit the contour of them, 
as it is very hard on the hands to do this work for very 
long at a time, though nothing has ever been invented 
which fits irregular forms as well as the fingers. A piece 
of sandpaper should never he used on a piece of work until 
all the cutting by edge tools has been done, as the particles of 
sand will enter the grain of the wood, and any edge tools 
used upon it afterward will be quickly dulled. Do not 
use a piece of sandpaper so large that any part of it will 
not be under perfect control, as loose ends will scratch the 
wood, and it has an awkward and unworkmanlike appear- 
ance. Always work parallel with the grain, and be sure 
that all plane marks and rough places are thoroughly 
rubbed down. In order to do this well, it is often necessary 
to use considerable muscle. TJiis part of the work calls 
for good judgment, for unless sandpapered enough, there 
will be places which will show when the finish is spread 
on the work, though they may have been invisible bef( re. 
No one can tell as well as the workman himself when suffi- 
cient sandpapering has been done, though it may be evi- 
dent to any one who knows the signs whether or not the 
work has been done judiciously. Upon a coarse job it is 
usually allowable, and sometimes desirable, to sandpaper 
across the grain, especially if the work is to be painted. 

In order to impress it upon the student, we will repeat 
that too much care cannot be taken in the use of sandpaper, 
for much oftener will an amateur injure a piece of work 
than improve it, 



126 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



d 

a e a c a a. a. 



Fig. 98. — Sandpapering Panel 

Work. 

(For explanation, see text.) 



(D.) In sandpapering panel work, as in Fig. 98, the 
panels (a) should be smoothed, scraped, and sandpapered, 
and the edges of the stiles (6), rails (<i), and muntins ie) 

should be treated the same way 

before the panel work is put to- 
gether ; an exception to this in 
regard to the panels may be made 
if the panel frame is constructed 
in such a way as to allow the panels 
to be put in place after it is to- 
gether, in which case the panels 
may be smoothed at any time. 
Upon very fine work the panels 
are sometimes polished before 
being put in place, as it is diffi- 
cult for the finisher to work into the corners after the panels 
are in place. After the faces of the stiles, rails, and muntins 
have been planed and scraped, they should be sandpapered* 
in the order named, working with the sandpaper over a 
sharp-cornered block close to the edges of the pieces, 
being careful not to drag the paper over the face of the 
pieces which join at right angles. The stiles, rails, and 
muntins should be sandpapered in the order in which 
they are mentioned. If the sandpaper runs over the rails 
a little when sandpapering the muntins, or over the stiles 
when sanding the rails, it will do no harm, as a couple of 
light, careful strokes parallel with the grain will be suffi- 
cient to remove any scratches which may be made. 

In sanding mahogany, or any wood of which the grain 
rubs up, make the strokes in one direction only, instead 
of back and forth. Sometimes wax is rubbed in to hold 



GLUE AND SAXDPAPIMl 127 

the grain down upon cheap work, but this is not recom- 
mended, as that place will not take the stain or the finish 
like the rest of the w^ood. A very thin coat of shellac is 
used for the same purpose ; this is less objectionable, but 
should be avoided if possible. 



Suggestive Exercises 

65. Of what material is glue made? Describe briefly the process 
of making glue. What kind of glue is best for general work ? Is 
ground glue always reliable ? What is the chief advantage in its use ? 
Is high-priced glue always the best for all purposes ? What should be 
the appearance of good glue ? How should it act in cold water ? When 
cut with a knife? When broken? Compare the amount of water 
absorl:)ed by a good and a i)oor glue. How should a glue pot be con- 
structed ? What will be the result if the glue pot boils dry ? Describe 
brushes suitable for use in gluing. What kind of bark makes a good 
brush for small work? How is it i)repared for use? 

G6. Describe the condition of glue when ready for use. What tool 
is used to increase the strength of the joint? In preparing for gluing, 
what preparations should be made ? How should wood be treated for 
use in gluing up wood of a greasy nature ? 

67. Describe the manufacture of sandpaper. What is used for sand ? 
How select sandpa})er ? 

68. For what kind of work is sandpaper numbers 00 and used? 
Numbers | and 1 ? What number of sandpaper is used upon general 
work ? What will be the result if sandpaper is kept in a damp place, or 
becomes wet ? What should be the size of the piece of sandpaper used 
upon flat surfaces, and for general work? How should moldings be 
sandpapered? What should be guarded against in working around 
sharp corners ? Should sandpaper be carried with or across the grain ? 
What exceptions? How should panel work be sandpapered? How 
should panels and the edges of stiles, rails, and muntins be treated 
before gluing up? How should sandpaper be used upon grain which 
rubs up ? How are panels sometimes treated upon fine work ? Why ? 



CHAPTER VI 
Wood Finishing 

69. Filling. — (A.) After wood has been smoothed and 
made ready to receive the finish, it is prepared by filling, 
by which is meant the process of filling the grain so that 
the finish itself will not soak in. This, if well done, 
makes it possible to do as good a job of finishing with 
two or three coats as could be done on some kinds of wood 
with from five to eight coats without the filling. Open- 
grained woods, such as oak, ash, etc., especially need 
filling, as before the process of filling was discovered, the 
open grain, or cellular part of the wood, had to be filled 
by shellac, or other expensive material, before there was 
a surface suitable to receive the polish. (B.) There are 
two forms of filler — the paste, which is for use upon open- 
grained woods, and ths liquid, which is adapted to filling 
the pores of close-grained woods like pine, poplar, cherry, 
etc., and which takes the place of one coat of the more expen- 
sive shellac or other finish. The paste may be purchased 
ready-made, and colored to suit the taste, or it may be 
made by using whiting, silex, or corn starch, and any dry 
colors necessary to secure the desired stain. The ingre- 
dients should be well ground, and thoroughly mixed 
with boiled linseed oil to a thick paste ; to this should be 
added as much japan drier as there is of the oil, or one 
quarter as much as there is of the paste. The whole may 

128 



WOOD FINISHING 129 

then be thinned with turpentine, benzine, or gasolene 
to a consistency which will allow it to be spread easily, 
but it should still be quite thick. 

(C.) Filler need not be spread very smoothly, but the 
surface of the wood must be covered, and the filling 
thoroughly worked into the grain. After this has been 
done, the wood should be allowed to stand a few minutes, 
until the filler has become dull or powdery, and seems to 
stick to the wood if rubbed lightly with the finger, when 
it should be rubbed off with shavings or excelsior, rubbing 
across the grain wherever possible. Do hot use cloth until 
cleaning up after the filler is all off, as it is more apt to 
take the filling out of the grain than either excelsior or 
shavings. The corners should be cleaned out with a 
sharp stick, after which the work should stand for several 
hours, or over night, before the finish is applied, as other- 
wise the moisture in the filler may cause the finish to 
bubble. Care should be used that the filling does not 
stand too long before rubbing off, or it will be very difficult 
to remove it ; hence, it is best not to spread any more than 
can be cleaned off before it gets too hard. Be sure that 
there is enough filling mixed to do the job before any is 
applied, as it is difficult to match colors. 

(D.) Liquid filling should be spread as smoothly and 
as evenly as possible, as the laps will be apt to show 
through the finish which is spread over it. 

70. Staining wood (A.) is for the purpose of imparting 
some other than the natural color to the wood. 

(B.) In finishing open-grained woods, a stain often is 
used which will color the wood before it is filled, though 
upon general work, it is the custom to color the stain only. 
king's woodwork — 9 



130 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

This does not make the work all of one color, as the cells 
of the wood will retain more filling than will the harder 
part of the grain. By this method the quarter grain may 
be made more prominent. If an open-grained wood is 
being treated, it should be filled after being stained. 
Close-grained woods are ready for the finish as soon as the 
stain has dried. Stains which will do the work satisfac- 
torily may be made of various chemicals. There are 
also many satisfactory stains upon the market, which can 
be purchased in as small packages as desired, offering the 
student a large range of colors from which to select. 

(C.) Stains for close-grained woods may be made by 
mixing dry colors with turpentine or benzine, and a little 
boiled oil and japan to bind the color. These stains should 
be applied the same as the filler, but not allowed to be- 
come so hard before cleaning off, or there will be light places 
rubbed in the finish. The rubbing or cleaning off should 
be done with a soft cloth, care being used that there are 
no places left uncleaned, especially in the corners, as the 
finish will make them muddy. 

(D.) A very good old cherry stain may be made by mix- 
ing Venetian red and rose pink until the desired shade is 
produced. 

(E.) Black walnut may be imitated by mixing burnt 
umber with turpentine, oil, and japan, and if a reddish 
tinge is desired, a little burnt sienna may be added ; this 
is a much better color than can be produced by umber 
alone. Asphaltum, thinned to the desired color, makes a 
good walnut stain. 

(F.) Many of the best stains are mixed with water as 
a vehicle, as a depth and brilliancy of color may be ob- 



WOOD FINISHING 131 

tained which is impossible with any stain that has oil in 
it. The objection to using water is that the grain of the 
wood is lifted by the moisture, and has to be sanded smooth 
before it can be finished. Even with this serious objection, 
water stains are used extensively upon the best work. 

(G.) The rich mahogany stain which is so much ad- 
mired may be made by mixing the same colors as men- 
tioned in (D.), and adding carmine until the desired color 
is obtained. An oil stain will not give the best results, 
therefore a water stain should be used, with a piece of gum 
arable about twice the size of a pea dissolved in a pint or 
less of the stain for a binder, or about the same proportion 
of mucilage. This stain should be cleaned off the same as 
the oil stain above described. 

(H.) Cherry may be darkened by applying nitric acid ; 
other woods may be darkened or aged by using ammonia, 
potash, or a strong solution of tobacco or coffee. Nitrate of 
silver, if exposed to the sunlight, gives a beautiful brown. 

(I.) A rich brown may be produced by using equal parts 
of permanganate of potash and sulphate of magnesia, dis- 
solved in water ; as many coats as desired may be applied, 
sanding with number 00 sandpaper between the coats. 
Better results are obtained if the stain is applied hot. 

(J.) A beautiful green of any intensity may be pro- 
duced by mixing verdigris and indigo in hot vinegar, and 
applying hot. Several coats may be necessary, sanding 
between the coats. The indigo should be used cautiously, 
or the green may have too much of a bluish cast. 

(K.) A rich brownish black maybe obtained by using a so- 
lution of logwood (pulverized) and sulphate of iron, applied 
in coats in the order named. Each solution should be hot. 



132 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

(L.) Ebony may be obtained by giving any close-grained 
wood, cherry preferred, a coat of sulphate of iron, using 
a weak solution, and after that has dried and been sanded^ 
a coat of solution of nutgalls. If the iron is too strong, a 
white efflorescence will appear, which in open-grained 
woods will bring out the grain in strong relief. If this is 
objectionable, the grain should be filled with a black filler. 

(M.) Shellac (see 71, A.) and boneblack, if well mixed, 
make an ebony finish which is often used upon common 
work ; black varnish sometimes is used the same as black 
shellac, but for the best work these are not satisfactory, 
as they do not strike into the wood to the same extent as 
do acid, turpentine, or water stain. 

71. Shellac. — (A.) This is a product of Africa and 
South America. It is the combination of a secretion of 
the female of a small insect and the sap of a tree, in the 
bark of which the insect deposits its eggs. The gum thus 
formed is gathered, and after passing through various re- 
fining processes becomes the shellac known to commerce. 
It is cut or dissolved by either wood or grain alcohol, 
when it is ready for use. Some of the best furniture is 
finished with shellac, and unless continuously exposed to 
moisture or hard usage, the finish is practically everlasting. 

(B.) Shellac finish does not crack as varnish is liable 
to, neither does its luster dim. by exposure to the various 
gases present in every house, which are due to domestic 
causes, though most varnishes will do this after some years. 

Upon ordinary work, two coats of shellac may be satis- 
factory, though three coats generally will improve the 
work sufficiently to make it advisable to apply the extra 
coat. Shellac should not be laid in too thick coats, or it 



WOOD FINISHING 133 

will pit badly in dryinp;, and make work in rubbing to a 
surface, which can be avoided if moderately thin coats are 
spread, though perhaps the greatest advantage in laying 
thin coats is that the wood may be covered more evenly, 
and there will be fewer runs and laps visible. Shellac 
should always be laid with quick strokes, never w^orking 
over a place already covered ; for this work, use a brush as 
large as possible to do the work without clumsiness. 

(C.) In applying shellac finish, one coat is laid upon the 
other, each coat being rubbed down with number 00 sand- 
paper, or with pulverized pumice stone before the next 
coat is spread. For this purpose, a sheet of sandpaper 
should be cut into eighths, and one of these pieces folded 
in the center of its long dimension, and held in the hand 
as shown in Fig. 99, which keeps its edges from scratching 
the surface. If it is desired to rub the shellac down to a 
surfac3 with pumice stone, it should be applied with hair- 
cloth, or with harness maker's felt, moistened with oil or 
water; but for ordinary work, sandpaper will give satis- 
faction, and as it is more convenient, it is much used. 

If the best results are desired, the last coat should be 
rubbed with pumice stone and sweet oil, applied as above, 
though boiled cil is satisfactory; and for ordinary work, 
number 00 sandpaper is used, though it is liable to show 
scratches. After the rubbing is done, the oil should be 
wiped off with a soft rag, and very fine rotten stone dusted 
on and polished with a cban, soft cloth. Many finishers 
use the palm of the hand in putting on the finishing touches. 
If a dead, or mat, finish is, desired, the final rubbing should 
be done wdth w^ater, used sparingly, as oil imparts a high 
gloss, if the work is well done. 



134 



ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 



(D.) Care should be used on any kind of work upon 
which waste or oily rags are used ; these rags should be 
gathered and burned unless they are wanted again soon, 
in which case they may be spread out separately; since, 
if crushed together and thrown, as they often are, into 




Fig. 99. — Method of (iuAsi'iNt; Sandpaj-ku 

Finish. 



Down Shellac 



a waste box, they furnish the necessary conditions for a 
case of spontaneous combustion. 

(E.) The gloss upon dried shellac and varnishes of all 
kinds is very showy, and lacks the finish and the texture of 
a rubbed finish. Moreover, any dust settling upon moist 
varnish is held, giving the surface an effect of countless 
minute points ; rubbing removes these, and gives the 
smooth, glossy surface desired upon most work. Upon 



WOOD FINISHING 135 

the most artistic furniture, a gloss, which is the result of 
a built-up polish, is not considered good taste ; the use of 
muscle and a very little oil, applied at intervals during a 
term of years, gives a polish and a beauty which can be 
obtained by no other method, and it is to attain this ideal 
in a few days that so many varieties of finish exist. 

(F.) In rubbing, be sure that the corners are not rubbed 
through, as the pressure will naturally be more upon the 
corners than upon a broad surface. This may be avoided by 
using care that the pressure is not applied so as to bear 
on the corner ; grasp the rubbing material in such a way 
that no loose edges will be beyond control, as in Fig. 99, 
or the finish may be badly scratched; this applies es- 
pecially to the corners. The rubbing should always be 
in the direction parallel with the grain of the wood. 

(G.) If the finish is rubbed through to the wood, it 
may be repolished or patched by sandpapering the bare 
wood with fine sandpaper, and staining it to bring it to 
the same condition as the rest of the wood before the first 
coat of finish was applied. Using the same finishing 
material as the finish of the rest of the piece, lay a very 
thin coat, a little larger than the place to be patched, be- 
ing careful to avoid a ridge at the edge of the patch. This 
ridge may be drawn out by a small camel' s-hair brush, and 
the patch left until thoroughly dried ; then apply another 
patch a little larger than the first one, treating the edge 
as in the first patch. Continue this until the finish is built 
up to the same thickness as that of which it is a part. 
This should be rubbed very carefully to bring it to the 
same finish as the rest of the surface, using care not to 
rub through the old finish at the edge of the patch. As it 



136 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

is the corners which are most Uable to be rubbed through, 
this process will not generally be difficult of application; 
all that is necessary to secure a successful patch is to use 
care at each step, and not to hurry the drying of the 
different patches. 

72. Wax finishing is a good method of finishing any 
kind of hard or dark-colored wood ; (A.) it does not give 
as satisfactory results, however, as do some other methods 
of finishing, upon soft or light-colored wood. There are 
a number of different kinds of wax finishes which can be 
purchased in almost any desired quantity, (B.) but an 
economical and satisfactory wax finish may be made by 
dissolving as much pulverized resin as may be picked up on 
a cent in a half pint of turpentine or gasolene heated in 
a water or steam double vessel. After this is clear, cut 
up and add a piece of beesw^ax as large as a thimble, and 
allow the finish to simmer slowly, until it is clear, when it 
is ready for use. This may be mixed in larger quantities 
by using the same proportions. If placed in an air-tight 
vessel, it will keep indefinitely. 

(C.) This finish should be applied hot, with a brush, as 
smoothly and as evenly as possible, and allowed to stand 
until it has become quite hard, when it should be polished 
with a soft rag which is free from lint. As many coats as 
desired may be applied, each coat being treated in the 
same way, and adding to the beauty of the finish. Another 
method of applying this finish, and which gives satisfac- 
tory results upon broad surfaces, is to make a pad of a rag, 
and rub the wax on the wood, rubbing until it is dry. 
This is not as satisfactory as it is to use a brush upon 
work where there are many corners to finish around. 



WOOD FINISHING 137 

One of the advantages of this wax finish is that it may 
be brightened if it becomes dim by going over it with a 
soft cloth, or it may be renewed and improved by another 
coat at shght expense and Uttle trouble. 

This is also a satisfactory method of finishing a dark floor 
made of a wood which will not splinter when it is rubbed. 

73. (A.) Oil finish is perhaps the most simple way to 
finish a piece of furniture ; it is best adapted to hard, 
dark woods. The material is made by mixing a quarter 
of a pint of turpentine with seven eighths of a quart of 
boiled linseed oil. It should be spread evenly over the 
surface to be finished, and should stand until as much of it 
as will, has soaked into the wood, when the surface should 
be brought to a finish by rubbing. This will require muscle, 
as the finish should stand about ten hours, during which 
time a thin film or skin will form, which must be removed 
by rubbing. Only a soft rag, free from lint, should be 
used, and be sure that the folds of the cloth do not leave 
their marks upon the surface. Rub with the grain. 

(B.) Oil finish is a very durable finish, easily taken 
care of, and is used to some extent in finishing the most 
artistic furniture, being especially adapted to finishing 
mahogany. It has a character peculiarly its own, and 
exposure to moisture and heat affects it less than almost 
any other form of finish. As it should be occasionally 
oiled, it improves with age and care. This finish was used 
in olden times, and the care of generations gives a polish 
attainable by no other method. 

74. Varnish forms the finish which is used most com- 
monly upon all grades and kinds of work. (A.) The 
different grades are made of various vegetable gums and 



138 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

resins, cut in turpentine and mixed with boiled oil. A 
cheap grade of varnish or hard oil may be made by boiling 
resin, turpentine, and boiled oil together. Other gums 
may be treated the same way ; the varnish used upon the 
best work, for instance, is made from copal, a vegetable 
product of the tropics. By a very careful process of boil- 
ing, straining, and ripening, extending over months, 
copal is made into the product which is used so extensively 
upon furniture finishing, carriages, etc. 

(B.) Varnish should be applied in a room heated to 
about 80° F., the dust should be laid by sprinkling, and 
there should be no drafts of air, nor flies or other insects 
to light upon it, if the best results are desired. 

(C.) In flowing varnish, instead of laying a thin coat 
as in shellac, a thick coat should be applied. This may be 
done by using a thick, heavy brush ; some prefer a heavy, 
round brush, and others think they can obtain the best 
results from a broad, flat brush. The finer the hairs, the 
better the results obtained. 

The brush must be taken up full of varnish, enough to 
cover the entire surface, if possible, and spread or flowed 
very quickly. The brush should then be wiped out in 
the varnish pot. With the brush thus dried, go over the 
surface, picking up all that the brush will absorb ; wipe 
this out in the pot, and repeat the operation until nothing 
is left but a thin film of varnish. If this is done properly, 
it will prevent all runs and streaks which result from un- 
skillful workmanship. 

When this coat is thoroughly dried, rub with number 00 
sandpaper, pulverized pumice stone, or a smooth block of 
pumice stone (carriage painter's method), and repeat the 



WOOD FINLSTIING 139 

process until the desired body of varnish is obtained. Rub 
down last coat with oil and polish. Allow as much time 
between last coats as possible, as the harder the varnish 
is, the better and more durable the work will be when 
completed. 

75. Polishing. — This term applies to the process by 
which a polish is built up by rubbing, or '' ragging " as 
workmen sometimes call it. The piece to be polished 
should receive two or three coats of shellac or varnish, 
which should be rubbed down to a surface, w^hen it is 
ready for the polish. 

To make a pad of convenient size for polishing, fold a 
piece of old, soft cloth, free from lint, and fill it with cot- 
ton waste; or the end of a roll of cloth may be covered 
by the piece which is to do the actual polishing. Provide 
a cup of moderately thin shellac and another of boiled oil, 
of which about one quarter is turpentine ; or better, a cup 
of sweet oil without turpentine. Dip the pad into the 
oil and allow it to soak in completely, then do the same 
with the shellac. Now dip the pad again into the shellac, 
and with the finger put on a single drop of oil, and rup 
lightly upon the work, with, a circular motion, or if the 
work is large enough, the stroke may be longer. If the 
work is done with a straight stroke, do not stop at the end 
of the stroke, as the instant between the end of one stroke 
and the beginning of the return may be enough to allow the 
shellac to stick and make a hole in the surface, w^hich will 
be difficult to repair ; begin and end the stroke with a sweep- 
ing motion. The idea of this method of polishing is to bring 
the shellac to a polish, using as little oil as possible for lubri- 
cating, as the less oil used, the better will be the polish. 



140 ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK 

76. Brushes. — (A.) If brushes are to be used for stain 
or for fining, a cheap brush of any suitable size will do, 
a flat brush being preferred upon ordinary work. For 
shellac and varnish, the finer the brush, the better the 
results usually obtained. Ordinarily it is the best practice 
to use as large a brush as the nature of the work will per- 
mit, as it will hold more, and cover more surface, than a 
smaller brush, and have fewer '' laps." Chisel-pointed, 
flat brushes, from IJ'' to 2\" in width, will be found satis- 
factory for the work of schools and amateurs, but upon 
professional work, brushes from ?>\" to 5'^ often are used. 

(B.) The care of the brushes is an important part of 
the work of those who use them, as neglect or carelessness 
may destroy a valuable brush overnight. Unless a brush 
is going to be used again the next day, it is always best to 
clean it thoroughly. If a stain, filling, paint, or varnish 
brush, use gasolene or turpentine, but if a shellac brush, 
use wood alcohol, cleaning off all the small particles. To 
obtain the best results, all brushes should be washed in 
hot, soapy water, and afterward rinsed in clean water ; in 
general, however, this latter precaution may be dispensed 
with, unless the brushes are to be laid away indefinitely. 
Unless the above precautions have been taken, care should 
be taken that shellac and varnish brushes are not changed 
from one to the other. Never allow a brush to stand on its 
side for more than a few minutes at a time, as a wrong direc- 
tion is easily given the bristles, and the brushes may be 
quickly destroyed by a little carelessness or negligence. 

Old brushes, well broken in and cared for, will give better 
results than new brushes ; therefore they should be treated 
with every possible consideration. 



WOOD FINISHING 141 

Varnish brushes often are left in the varnish pot, and if 
they are hung up so that they will not rest upon their 
bristles, this is the best way to keep them when they are 
m almost constant daily use. 



Suggestive Exercises 

69. Why is wood filler used ? Describe paste filler. Describe the 
process of spreading filler and of rubbing it off. Describe liquid filler 
and the process of spreading it. 

70. Why do we stain wood? What is the difference in the results 
of staining and filling and of filling alone ? How may stains for open- 
grained woods be mixed and used ? Describe a simple cherry or ma- 
hogany stain. Describe black walnut stain. What is the objection to 
a water stain? How may a rich mahogany stain be mixed? How 
may woods be darkened? Describe the composition of a rich brown 
stain ; of a good green stain ; of a brownish black. Describe ebonizing. 
For what purposes are shellac and lampblack and black varnish used ? 

71. Of what does shellac finish consist ? What is the source of supply 
of shellac? Compare shellac and copal varnish. Demonstrate the 
application of shellac. Are thin or thick coats of shellac the better ? 
Why is rubbing down necessary ? Demonstrate. What precautions 
should be taken in regard to oily rags? Why? What should l^e 
guarded against in rubbing? What is a convenient size for a piece of 
sandpaper ? Describe and demonstrate patching. 

72. Describe the preparation of wax finish. Describe and demon- 
strate two methods of applying wax finish. 

73. Describe oil finish and its application. Describe its qualities. 

74. Describe briefly the manufacture of varnish. Describe ideal con- 
ditions for flowing varnish. Describe and demonstrate the method of 
flowing varnish. 

75. Describe and demonstrate the process of polishing. 

76. Describe the kinds of brushes suitable^ for different kinds of work. 
How should brushes be cleaned? What should be the general treat- 
ment of a brush ? How may varnish brushes be kept ready for use ? 



INDEX 



Age of tree, 2. 

Aiburnuni, sec Sapwood. 

Annual layer, formation of, 1, 2, 3; 

covering over breaks, 9, 10 ; in 

quarter-sawed lumber, 23 ; shrinking 

around, 48. 
Apple wood, description of, 29. 
Arkansas stone, 106. 
Ash, description of, 28. 
Auger, cross-handled, 91. 
Auger bit, described, 91 ; filing of, 92, 

93. 
Axe, hand, described, 66. 

Backsaw, described, 69. 

Balsam fir, illustrated, 43. 

Band saw, 19. 

Bark, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6. 

Basswood (or linden), description of, 29. 

Bast, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6. 

Bastard sawing, 22. 

Beech, description of, 30, 31. 

Bell-faced hammer, described, 65. 

Benches, types of, described, 57-59. 

Bevel, described, 62. 

Bill stuff, sawing of, 22. 

Birch, description of, 30, 32. 

Bird's-eye maple, description of, 36. 

Bitbrace, or stock, described, 93 ; 
ratchet, described, 94. 

Bits, described, 90. 

Black walnut, see Walnut. 

Black walnut stain, 130. 

Blemishes, in grading lumber, 23, 24. 

Blind nailing, described, 06. 

Block plane, description and use of, 84. 

Boards, sawing of, to dim(Mision, 20 ; 
surveying or (estimating of, 25; meas- 
uring of, 26; for siding, 28; piling of, 
48, 49. 

Brushes, for gluing, 120; for staining 
and filling, 140. 



Burnisher, use of, in sharpening scraper, 
97-100. 

Butternut (or white walnut), descrip- 
tion of, 32. 

Buttonwood, see Sycamore. 

Cable, hauling logs by, 15. 

Calipers, described, 95. 

Cam, of plane, 73, 75. 

Cambium, of tree trunk, 4, 5, 6. 

Canoe birch, 32. 

Cap iron, of plane, use of, 74. 

Cap screw, of plane, use of, 73, 75. 

Carborundum, as grindstone, 106; as 
oilstone, 107. 

Carpenter's bench, 57, 58. 

Cedar, description of, 32. 

Cellular grain of wood, 2. 

Center bit, described, 92. 

Checking, or cracking, of lumber, 6, 8. 

Cherry, description of, 32; stain, 130; 
how to darken, 131. 

Chestnut, description of, 33. 

Chisels, described, 88. 

Circular saw, 19, 20. 

Claw hammer, described, 64. ' 

Clefts, or splits, 9. 

Close-grained woods, filling of, 128; 
staining of, 130. 

Coarse-grained lumber, 8. 

Color of wood, 2, 25. 

Comb-grained lumber, 23. 

Common boards, grading of, 26 ; meas- 
uring of, 26. 

Compass (or keyhole) saw, described, 
68; filing of, 113. 

Compasses, or dividers, described, 95. 

Coniferous trees, 2, 3. 

Corundum, as grindstone, 106 ; as 
oilstone, 107. 

Cross-grained lumber, 8. 

Culls, 24. 



143 



144 



INDEX 



Cup shakes, 7, 8. 

Cutting-off saw, described, 68 ; filing 

of, 111. 
Cypress, description of, 33. 

Decay of tree, how prevented, 25. 
Deciduous trees, 2. 
Defects in lumber, 7-10. 
Dimension timber, sawing of, 20, 22. 
Discolorations in lumber, 9, 24. 
Dividers, see Compasses. 
Drawshave, described, 90. 
Duramen, see Heartwood. 

Ebony stain, 132. 

Edge, squaring an, with try-square, 60, 

61. 
Edges, square and beveled, 97. 
Elm, description of, 34. 
Emery, as grindstone, 106 ; as oilstone, 

107. 
Emery wheel, use of, in sharpening a 

plane, 77. 
Endogenous trees, 1. 
Estimating lumber, 25. 
Exogenous trees, 1. 
Extension bit, described, 92. 

Files, description and use of, 108- 

113. 
Filler, how to make, 128 ; how to 

spread, 129. 
Fine-grained lumber, 8. 
Finishing woods, 128-141. 
Flooring, best grades of, 23, 28. 
Framing, lumber for, 27, 28, 50. 
Framing square, 62. 

Gauge, description and use of, 63, 64. 

German bit, described, 92. 

Glue, different kinds of, 118; testing 

of, 119; how to use, 120-122. 
Gouges, described, 90. 
Grading of lumber, 23. 
Grain of woods, cause of, 1, 2, 6, 7 ; 

kinds of, 8. See also Close-grained, 

etc. 
Grindstone, use of, in sharpening a 

plane, 77 ; described, 105. 
Ground glue, 118. 
Gum (sweet gum), description of, 34. 



Hammer, described, 63. 
Handscrews, use of, 103-105, 122. 
Hard wood, cause of, 1, 2. 
Hatchet, described, 66. 
Hemlock, description of, 35. 
Heart shakes, 7, 8. 
Heartwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5. 
Hickory, description of, 35. 

Insects, injurious to trees, 10, 25. 
Inside finish, lumber for, 28. 

Jack plane, described, 81 ; use of, 86- 

88. 
Jointer, described, 82. 
Jointing a saw, 109. 
Joists or scantling, surveying of, 26. 

Keyhole saw, see Compass saw. 

Kiln, filling a, 53 ; length of time 

lumber should be left in, 54. 
Kiln-dried lumber, 28, 50-54. 
Kilns, moist air, 50 ; induced draft, 

52. 
Knife blades, described, 72. 

Linden, see Basswood. 

Liquid filler, 128. 

Locust, description of, 35. 

Logging, 12-19. 

Lumber, unseasoned, 3 ; checking, 
or cracking of, 6 ; defects in, 7, 8; 
grain of, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8; when to cut, 
10 ; manufacture of, 12-23 ; grading 
of, 23, 24 ; testing of, 24, 25 ; sur- 
veying or estimating of, 25-27 ; 
piling of, 45-49 ; weather-dried, 49 ; 
kiln-dried, 50-54. See also special 
subjects. 

lyumbering, processes of, 12. 

Mahogany, description of, 36 ; sanding 

of, 126; stain, 131. 
Mallets, described, 67. 
Manual-training bench, 67, 58. 
Maple, description of, 35 ; sugar maple, 

illustrated, 31. 
Medullary rays, 4, 5, 6 ; sawing woods 

having, 22. 
Moist air, or natural draft, kilns, 50. 
Moisture, in lumber, 4. 



INDEX 



145 



Moldings, sandpapering of, 125. 
Monkey wrench, 103. 

Nail set, use of, 06, 102 ; burnisher 

made from, 99. 
NaiHng, described, 65, 66. 
Nippers, described, 95. 

Oak, tree trunk, section of, 5 ; plain and 
quartered, 5 ; description of, 36. 

Odor of wood, 2, 25. 

Oil finish, 137. 

Oilstones, artificial, use of, 107. 

Open-grained woods, filling of, 128; 
staining of, 129. 

"Out of wind," 60, 61. 

Outside finish, lumber for, 27, 28. 

Panel work, sandpapering, 126. 

Paper birch, 32. 

Paste filler, 128. 

Piling of lumber, 45-49. 

Pine, yellow, section of, 2 ; description 

of different varieties of, 36. 
Pine logs, load of white, 14. 
Pith, of tree trunk, 4, 5. 
Plain sawing, 22. 
Plane, adjusting mechanism of, 73-75 ; 

other parts of, 75, 76 ; sharpening a, 

76-81. 
Planes, description and use of, 72-88. 
Pliers, described, 95. 
Polishing, 139. 
Poplar (or whitewood), description of, 

40. 
Position, in using tools, 85. 
Preserving wood, 55. 
Prices, sliding scale of, 26. 

Quarter-sawed lumber, 22, 23, 48. 

Ratchet bitbrace, described, 94. 
Ratchet screwdrivers, described, 94. 
Redwood, description of, 40. 
Rift-sawed lumber, 23. 
Ripsaw, described, 67; filing of, 112. 
Rule, use of, in setting gauge, 63. 
Rules, fourfold and zigzag, described, 59. 

Sandpaper, testing of, 122 ; how to 
use, 123-127. See also Finishing. 

king's woodwouk — 10 



Sap, motion of, 3 ; allowed, in grading 
lumber, 23. 

Sapwood, formation of, 3, 4, 5. 

Saw filing, described, 109-113. 

Saw handle, reset, 72. 

Saw set, hand and anvil, described, 110. 

Sawing of luml)er, 12, 18-23. 

Sawmills, types of, 18. 

Saws, description and use of, 67-72. 

Scale used in measuring lumber, 26, 27. 

Scraper, description of, 96 ; sharpening 
of. 97-102. 

Scratch plane, for use in gluing, 121. 

Screwdriver, described, 94. 

Shellac, use of, 132-136. 

Shingles, quality of, 28. 

Shrinking of lumber, quarter-sawed, 
23, 48. 

Silver grain, 5, 6, 22. 

Skidways, use of, 13-17. 

Slash sawing, 22. 

Slip stones, use of, 107. 

Smoothing plane, described, 82. 

Soft wood, cause of, 1, 2. 

Spokeshave, described, 90. 

Spruce, cutting of, 13, 14 (figs. 5, 6) ; 
description of, 40. 

Staining wood, 129-132. 

Star shakes, 7, 8, 48. 

Steaming wood, 55. 

Steel, or framing, square, 62. 

Stock, see Bitbrace. 

Straight-grained lumber, 8. 

Stumpage, explanation of, 13. 

Sugar maple forest, 31. 

Surveying of lumber, 25. 

Sycamore (or buttonwood), descrip- 
tion of, 42. 

Tacking, described, 65. 

Testing of lumber, 24. 

Timbers to be buried, quality of, 28. 

Toenailing, described, 65. 

Tools, how to purchase, 57 ; descrip- 
tion and use of, 57-108. 

Travoy road, 13, 15. 

Tree trunk, tissues of, 4. 

Trees, kinds of, used for lumber, 1, 2; 
annual layer of, 1; grain of, 1, 2, 6, 
7, 8; age of, 2; defects in, 8-lQ ; 
wheu to cut, 10; felling of, 12-15; 



146 



INDEX 



decay of, 25. See also special sub- 
jects. 

Try-square, description and use of, 
59-62, 71. 

Twist drill, described, 92. 

Varnish, 137. 

Vertical-grained lumber, 23. 
Vises, on benches, 59. 



Walnut, black, description of, 

white, sec Butternut. 
Walnut stain, black, 130. 
Warping of lumber, 48. 
Washita stone, 106. 
Waste, care in use of, 134. 
Wax finishing, 136. 



42 



Ways, permanent lumber, 45. 

Weather-dried lumber, 12, 28, 49. 

Whetstones, description and use of, 
106. 

Whetting and grinding of plane, 77-80. 

White wood, see Poplar. 

Wind shakes, or cup shakes, 7, 8, 

Winding sticks, 61. 

Wood, growth of, 1-11 ; grain of, 1, 2 ; 
color of, 2, 4 ; odor of, 2 ; soft and 
hard, 1, 2; qualities of, 27-29 
varieties of, 29-42 ; steaming, 55 
preserving, 55 ; filling grain of, 128 
staining, 129. See also special sub- 
jects. 

Wrenches, described, 103. 



VOCATIONAL KDUCATION 

By JOHN M. GILLETTE, Professor of Sociology in the 
State University of North Dakota 

$I.OO 



I 



N this volume is presented for teachers, superintendents, 
and teachers' reading circles an illuminating discussion ot 
the present general movement for vocational education. 
By this phrase is meant not only industrial education; but all 
the training courses needed to meet the practical demands ot 

life. 

•] The author explains at some length the principles, de- 
mands, and methods of vocational education; he states the 
grounds upon which hopes of success may reasonably rest; 
he indicates some actual results gained by schools conducted 
on more practical lines; and he points out others which 
would follow upon the reorganization of our educational sys- 
tem in general. 

• | The vocationalizing of the schools has regard to the con- 
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tended to give him suitable training for his niche in hfe, to 
show him how he can make the most of himselt and in what 
line he can prove himself most productive to society At 
the same time, this scheme of education does not ignore the 
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insists that the individual be fitted for good citizenship. 
•] The introduction of vocational education into the public 
school svstem of the United States, with the curriculum ad- 
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AMERICAN B()(3K COMPANY 



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AN ELEMENTARY TEXT- 
BOOK OF THEORETICAL 
MECHANICS 

By GEORGE A. MERRILL, B.S.. Principal of the 
California School of Mechanical Arts, and Director of 
the Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, San Francisco 

II.5O 



MERRILL'S MECHANICS is intended for the upper 
classes in secondary schools, and for the two lower 
classes in college. Only a knowledge of elementary 
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^[ By presenting only the most important principles and 
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•[[ The explanation of each topic is followed by a few well- 
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AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



(73> 



ELEMENTS OF 
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMl^TRY 

By ALBERT E. CHURCH, LL.D., late Professor of 
Mathematics, United States Military Academy, and 
GEORGE M. BARTLETT, M.A., Instructor in 
Descriptive Geometry and Mechanism, University of 
Michigan. 

$2.25 

Part I. Orthographic Projections. $1.75 



THIS is a modern treatment of descriptive geometry with 
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